IAS History Notes

 

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

(800 – 1200 A.D.)

 

The Tripartite Struggle: 8^th to 10^th Centuries

 

Between 750 A.D. and 1000 A.D., three empires dominated the political scene in India. These were the Palas who dominated eastern India till the middle of the 9^th Century, the Pratiharas who dominated the western part of India and the upper gangetic valley till the middle of the 10^th century, and the Rashtrakuta empire, which dominated the Deccan and also controlled the territory in north and south India at various times. They were involved in conflict among themselves, but provided stable conditions of life over large areas and gave patronage to arts and letters. Of the three, the Rashtrakuta Empire lasted the longest; it was also the most powerful empire of the tie and acted as bridge between north and south India in economic as well as cultural matters.

 

Palas

 

Ruled in areas of Bihar and Bengal with capital at Mongyr (Munger).

 

Gopala

 

The death of Sasanka of Gauda created anarchy and confusion in Bengal, whereupon the notable men of Bengal elected Gopala as king in 750 A.D., Gopala thus set up the Pala Kingdom. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist and set up the Odantapuri Vihar (modern Bihar Shaarif).

 

Dharmapala

 

Gopala was succeeded by his son Dharmpala. Dharmapala was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva – III who also defeated the Pratihara ruler Vatasraja. But, Dhruva returned to the Deccan whereupon Dharmapala occupied Kannauj but could not consolidate his control over it as Pratihara power revived under Nagabhata II who defeated Dharmapala near Mongyr. Eastern U.P and Bihar became a bone of contention between the Palas and the Pratiharas, though Palas had control over Bengal and much of Bihar. Dharmapala patronized the Mahavihara of Vikramsil and Vihara at Sompura (Paharpur).

 

Devapala

 

The son of Dharmapala succeeded him. He extended control over Prayagjotishpur (Assam) and also parts of Orissa. Probably, a part of Modern village to a Vihaa at Nalanda which was constructed by Balaputradev, a Sailendera ruler of Sumatra, Java and Malaya.

 

Arab traveled Sulaiman who visited India in the middle of the 9^th century calls the Pala kingdom ‘RUHMA’ (Dharma) and says the Pala ruler was at war with his neighbours and that the troops of Pala rulers were more numerous than his adversaries.

 

Tibetan chronicles written down in the 17^th century say that Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion. Dharmpala revived the Nalanda University and it was endowed with 200 villages for meeting its expenses. Dharmpala also founded the Vikramsila University. The Palas also built many Viharas where Buddhist monks lived. The Palas also maintained close cultural ties with Tibet as a result of which the noted Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara (Atisa) were invited to Tibet where they introduced a new form of Buddhism there. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramsila for study.

 

The Palas also had flourishing trade and cultural contents with South – East Asia which contributed to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.

 

Pratiharas

 

The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara – Pratiharas. They were settled at Bhinmal in Rajputana. The word Pratihara literally meant the door – keeper.

 

Nagabhatta I

 

He resisted the Arab invasions and acquired fame.

 

Vatsaraja

 

Attempted to capture Malwa but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva III.

 

Nagabhatta II

 

He was a great conqueror. He defeated Dharmapala and captured Kannauj but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta King Govind III. But Govind III returned to the Deccan and so Nagabhatta II again captured Kannauj. Nagabhatta II also came into conflict with Devapala.

 

Mihirabhoja (836 – 885A.D.)

 

Considered the greatest ruler of Pratiharas. Arab travelers tell us that the Pratiharas had the best cavalry in India. They acquired horses from central Asia and Arabia as an import item of trade. Bhoja used his horses well in military conquests. He tried to extend his sway in the east but was defeated by the Pala ruler Devapala. He than fought with the Rashtrakutas on the banks of the Narmada and acquired control over considerable parts of the Malwa and some parts of Gujarat. He then turned his attention to the north and following the death of Devapala and the weakening of the Pala Empire, Bhoja extended his Empire in the east. The achievements of Bhoja are known from his Gwalior inscription. Arab traveler Sulaiman says that Bhoja is one of the four greatest emperors of the world and an enemy of the Arabs. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha’ which has been found on his coins.

 

Mahendrapala I

 

Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I. he extended the Empire into Magadha and North Bengal. His inscriptions have also been found from east Punjab, Awadh and Kathiawar. He fought a battle with the king of Kashmir but had to yield to him some of the territories in the Punjab won by Bhoja.

 

In 915 A.D. the Rashtrakuta king Indra – III invaded Kannauj and gained control of Gujarat. In 1963 A.D. another Rashtrakuta king Krishna III invaded north India and defeated the Pratihara ruler. Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018 – 19 led to the submission of the Pratihara ruler Rajyapala before him, whereupon the Chandella ruler Vidyadhara defeated and killed Rajyapala as punishment for cowardice. Yashapala was perhaps the last Pratihara ruler.

 

Arab writer at – Masudi, a native of Baghdad, who visited Gujarat in 915 – 16 A.D. testifies to the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastross of their empire at masudi, calls the Gurjara – Pratiharas kingdom al – juzr (a corrupt form of Gurjara) and the king ‘Baura’, probably a mispronunciation of Adivaraha, the title used for Bhoja, although Bhoja had died by that time al – Maudi says that time army of al – juzr had four divisions each consisting of 7 lakh to 9 lakh men. Al – Masudi also says that the Pratiharas had the best cavalry of any king in India.

 

Rashtrakutas

 

The Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura, modern Latur of Maharashtra. They were of Kannada origin and Kannada was their mother tongue

 

Dantidurga

 

He was the founder of the Rashtrakutas. He fixed his capital at Manyakhat or Malked near modern Sholapur. He began his career as a feudatory of Chalukyas of Kalyani. His victories are mentioned in Samangad plates and Dasavatara cave inscription of Ellora. He expanded east and west of Latur without disturbing Karnataka, the stronghold of Chalukyas of Kalyani. He invaded Malwa, Gujarat and acquired control over northern Maharashtra. He then attacked and overthrew the Chalukyan ruler of Kalyani, Kirtivarman II and proclaimed himself the Paramound ruler of Deccan.

 

Krishna I

 

Dantidurga died childless and was followed by his uncle Krishna I. He constructed the magnificent rock – cut monolithic temple at Ellora, now known as Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.

 

Dhruva III

 

He is the next important ruler. He defeated the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja and also the Pala ruler Dharmapala.

 

Govind III

 

He defeated the Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II and the Pala ruler Dharmapala. He was succeeded by Amoghavarsha I.

 

Amoghavarsha I (814 – 78)

 

He is the greatest Rashtrakuta King. He preferred religion and literature to war. He was called as ‘Sarva’ and also as ‘Nripatunga’. Amoghavarsha wrote the book Kavirajamarga which is the first work of canarese on poetics. He also authored a book called Ranamalika and another called Passanotaramalika based on moral principles. Amoghavarsha was a Jain but he patronized other faiths also. He was a great builder and is said to have built the capital city Manyakhet so as to excel the city of India. There were many rebellions in the far flung areas of the Rashtrakuta Empire. Chandrobalabbe, a daughter of Amoghavarsha I was entrusted with the task of administering the Raichur Doab for some time.

 

Indria III

 

He was the next important ruler. He re – established the Empire. He was the most powerful ruler of his times. In 915 A.D, he invaded Kannauj and gained control of Gujarat.

 

Krishna III

 

He was the next important ruler. In 963 A.D, he invaded north India and defeated the Pratihara ruler. He also defeated the Chola Empire. He then pressed into Rameswaram and set up a pillar of victory there and built a temple. After his death, all his opponents united against his successor and the Rashtrakuta capital Malkhand was sacked and burnt in 972 A.D. This marked the end of the Rashtrakuta Empire.

 

The Rashtrakuta were tolerant in their religious views and patronized not only Shaivism and Vaishnavism but Jainism as well. They permitted Islam to be preached in the dominions. In the field of literature also, their tolerant spirit is visible. They equally patronized Sanskrit, Prakrit and ‘Apabharamsa’, a forerunner of many modern Indian languages including Kannada. Among the famous poets patronized by them were the great Kannada poets Pampa and Ponna. Pampa in the first half of 10^th century was the earliest and greatest of canarese poets having written Adipurana and Vikramarjenavijaya. Ponna who lived in the third quarter of the 10^th Century wrote the book Santipurana. The Rashtrakutas were liberal towards women and according to Arab writers; the women did not veil their faces.

 

NAD – gavundas or desa – gramakutas are hereditary revenue officers in the Deccan who discharged the same functions as the Deshmukhas and Deshpandes of later times in Maharashtra.

 

THE AGE OF CONFLICT (1000 – 1200 A.D.).

 

The Ghaznavids

 

Alaptgin

 

The Samanid Empire ruled by people of Iranian descent in areas of transoxiana, Kharasan and parts of Iran had many Turkish slaves who acted as governors. One such Turkish slave who rose to the position of a Samanid governor was Alaptgin. He in course of time established an independent kingdom with its capital as Ghazni. The Samanid kingdom soon ended and the Ghaznavids took over the task of defending the Islamic lands from the central Asia tribesmen. Alaptgin also came into conflict with the Hindushahi rulers who ruled in areas of Afghanistan to Punjab with their capital at Waihind (Ohinda). The Hindushahi ruler Jayapala recognizing the threat invaded Ghazni but was defeated. He renewed the fight the following year, but was again defeated. Mehmud took an active part in these battles as a prince.

 

Mahmud (998 – 1030)

 

Mahmud was the son of Alaptgin. He organized stout defence against the central Asia Turkish tribal invaders. He was closely associated with the renaissance of the Iranian spirit. A high point of Iranian renaissance was Firadausi’s Shah Namah. Firdausi was a court poet of Mahmud of Ghazni. Persian language and culture now become the language and culture of the Ghaznavid Empire so much so that Mahmud himself claimed descent from the Iranian legendary king, Afrasiyab. The Turks not only became Islamized but Persianized. It was the culture that they were to bring with them to India two centuries later. In India though, his memory is that of a plunderer and a destroyer of temples. He made 17 raids into India. His task was made easy due to political uncertainty in north India following the break – up of the Gurjara – Pratihara Empire. Mahmud took the offensive against the Hindushahi ruler Jayapala and the Muslim rulers of Multan who supported Jayapala. Mahmud defeated them in 1001 A.D., Jayapala felt humiliated and killed himself upon which Anandapala, and his son succeeded him to the throne. Anandapala took the help of many princes of north – western India, Rajasthan and Kannauj alongwith the Muslim ruler of Multan and the Khokkars of Punjab but was defeated by Mahmud in the decisive battle of Waihind in 1008 – 09 as a result of which Punjab and Multan passed into the hands of Mahmud though the Shahi kings ruled over some portions of their former Empire as Vassals.

 

The raids of Mahmud into India were aimed at plundering the rich temples and cities of north India to finance his Central Asian campaigns. His raids in India alternated with battles in Central Asia. Mahmud posed as the ‘but’shikan’ or the idol breaker. From the Punjab, Mahmud raided Nagarkot and Thanesar near Delhi. His most daring raids were against strong state existed in North India at that time and no attempt was made by Mahmud to annex any of these areas. He died at Ghazni in 1030 A.D.

 

Masud

 

The rise of Seljuk Empire which included Syria, Trans – oxiana and Iran following the death of Mahmud meant that it came in conflict with Masud, the son of Mahmud for control of Kharasan and in a battle Masud was defeated and he fled to Lahore for refuge. The Ghaznavid Empire now Shrunk to the Punjab. They continued top make plundering raids into the Gangetic valley and Rajputana, but they did not pose a serious military danger to India. Simultaneously, a number of states areas in north India which could counter the Ghaznavid raids.

 

The Rajput States with the break – up of Pratihara – Gurjara Empire, a number of Rajputs States came into existence in north India. Among them were,

 

·         The Tomars of Delhi

·         The Chauhans of Ajmer

·         The Parmaras of Malwa

·         The Chandellas of Bundelkhand

·         The Kaluchuris of Jabalpur

·         The Gahandvalos of Kannauj

·         The Senas of Bengal

 

The Rajput states wanted to grow at the expense of the neighbouring states which led to rivalries which made it impossible for the Rajput to oust the Ghaznavids from the Punjab. In fact, the Ghaznavids felt strong enough to make raids even upto Ujjain.

 

The Turkish Conquest of North India

 

Towards the middle of the 12^th century, two new powers rose to prominence in Central Asia, the Khwarizmi Empire based on Iran and the Ghurid Empire based on Ghur in North – West Afghanistan. The Ghurids started as vassals of Ghazni but soon threw off its yoke. The power of the Ghurids increased under Sultan Ala – ud – din who earned the of ‘the world burner’ (Jahan – soz) because he ravaged Ghazni and burnt it to the ground in revenge for the treatment that had been meted out to his brother at Ghazni. The rising power of the Kharizmi Empire and the conquering of Kharasan by Khwarizm Shah left no option for the Ghurids but to look for expansion towards India.

 

In 1173, Shahbuddin Muhammad (1173 – 1206) also known as Muizuddin Mohammed bin Sam or more popularly as Muhammad Ghuri ascended the throne at Ghazni while his elder brother was ruling at Ghur. Having crossed the Gomal pass, he conquered Multan and Uchch. In 1178, he attempted to penetrate Gujarat through Rajputana but was defeated by the Gujarati ruler in a battle near Mount Abu. So, he set about conquering Punjab first from the Ghaznavids and then using it as a base for a thrust towards Delhi and the Gangetic Doab.

 

Meanwhile in North India, the Chauhans had been rising steadily. They defeated a number of Turks who tried to invade Rajasthan; they captured Dhillika (Delhi) from Tomars and also were in conflict with the Ghaznavid rulers in Punjab. Prithviraj Chauhan ascended the throne at Ajmer and many small states in Rajasthan. He defeated the Chandella rulers of Bundelkhand in the battle of Mahoba in which the famous brothers, Alha and Udal, died fighting to save Mahoba. He next invaded Gujarat whose ruler Bhima II who earlier defeated Mohammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan also. This forced Prithviraj to turn his attention towards the Punjab and the Ganga valley. He also met in conflict with Muhammad Ghuri over Jabarhinda (Bhatinda) and in the ensuing battle of Tarain in 1191, Muhammad Ghuri was defeated. But, Muhammad Ghuri regrouped his forces and in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan who did not have the services of Skanda, the general of the last victorious campaign though he appealed to all the rajas of northern India for help, but Jaichandra, the ruler of Kannauj stayed away. The 2^nd battle of Tarain was mainly a battle between cavalry and Prithviraja was allowed to rule over Ajmer for some time as is evident from the coins of words “Sir Muhammad Sam” on the other. But Prithviraja was later executed for conspiracy, his son succeeded him. Following a rebellion, a Muslim army recaptured Ajmer and Prithviraja’s son moved to Ranthambor and founded a new Chauhan kingdom there. Delhi was taken over by the Turks. Thus, the Delhi area and eastern Rajasthan passed under Turkish ruler.

 

Turkish Conquest of Ganga Valley, Bihar, Bengal

 

Between 1192 and 1206, the Turkish rule was extended over the Ganga – Yamuna Doab, Bihar and Bengal. The Turks first had to defeat the Gahadvala ruler of Kannauj, Jaichadnra reputed to be the most powerful prince in India at that time, though he was earlier defeated by the Sena king of Bengal. Jaichandra was defeated by Muhammad Ghuri in 1193 in the battle of Chandawar near Kannauj and then Ghuri ravaged Benaras. So, the battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in India.

 

Muhammad Ghuri occupied Bayana, Gwalior. Aibak conquered Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho from the Chandolla rulers. Aibak then defeated Bhima II, the Chalukyan ruler of Gujarat. The Turks under Bhaktiyar Khalji made frequent raids into Bihar and destroyed the famous Buddhist monasteries of Bihar, Nalanda and Vikramsila Bhaktiyar Khalji marched with an army towards Nadia, the capital of Sena Kings of Bengal. He disguised himself as a horse – merchant and a party of 18 persons entered the Sena capital, reached the palace and created panic upon which Lakshmana Sena, taken by surprise ran away and took refuge at Sonargaon. Bhaktiyar Khalji fixed his capital at Lakhnauti in north Bengal, and Lakshmana Sena and his successors ruled in South Bengal from Sonargaon and Lakshmana Sena and his successors ruled in South Bengal from Sonargaon Bhaktiyar Khalji foolishly launched an expedition into the Brahmaputra valley where they were harassed by the Magh rulers of Assam, he fill ill and was stabbed to death by his own amirs.

 

Muhammad Ghori meanwhile suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Khwarizmi ruler in Central Asia in 1203, but his was a blessing in disguise to the Turks, for they had to bid good bye to their Central Asia ambitions and concentrate on India. But, the defeat of Muhammad Ghori emboldened the Khokhars in Punjab to rebel. Muhammad Ghori in 1206 launched his last campaign against the Khokhars, resorted to large – scale slaughter and them down. On his way back to Ghazni, he was killed by a Muslim fanatic belonging to a rival Sect.

 

Literature (800 – 1200A.D.)

 

Kalhana

 

Wrote the book ‘Rajatarangini’ which covers the history of Kashmir from ancient times to the 12^th century A.D. the book was written in Sanskrit under the patronage of Srittarsha and Jay Singh, the rulers of Kashmir, Rajatarangini is an account of history of Kashmir upto 12^th Century.

 

Alberuni

 

Belong to Khiva and was picked up of Mahmud after conquering Khiva. Came alongwith Mahmud of Ghazni as a freelance observer to India. He was a profound scholar with command over Persian, in his book Jahqiq – I – hind or Kitab – ul – hind written in Arabic. He also wrote Qanun – I – masudi, a book on astronomy and Jawahir – fil – Jawahir, a book on mineralogy.

 

Firdausi

 

Court poet of Mahmud of Ghazni who wrote Shah Namah in Persian.

 

Writers	Books
Kalhana	Rajatarangini
Alberuni	Jahqiq – I – hind or Kitab – ul – hind Jawahir – fil - Jawahir
Firdausi	Shah Namah
Amogavarsha I	Kavirajamarga Ratnamalika Passanotharamalika
Panipa I	Adipurana Vikramarajunavijaya
Ponna	Santipurana
Ranna	Ajithanthapurana Gandhayudha
Trivikrama	Nalachampu
Halayudha	Kavirahasu
Manikyanandan	Parikshamukhashastra , Nyayakaumudichandrodaya
Sandhyakaranandi	Rampalacharitha
Sakatyana	Amoghavritti
Viracharya	Ganitasarasmgrahaka
Rajashekhar	Karpurmanjari Kavyamimansa Bairamayana Viddhasal bhanjika
Dhoyi	Pavandutam
Sriharsha	Vijayprasasti Naishada charitam
Ballalesena	Danasagar Adbutasagar
Bilhana	Vikramakadevachrita
Jayadeva	Gitagovinda
Govardhana	Arya saptasati
Laxmidhara	Krityakalpataru
Nanniah Tikanna Yerrapragad	Mahabharatha (Telugu)
Atula	Mushika vamsa
Kambana	Ramayana (Tamil)
Bhaskhara II	Lilawat
Vigrahraj IV	Harikelinataka
Somadeva	Lalithavigraharaja
Jagnik	Alhakhand
Chandbardai	Prithviraj Raso
Jayanaka Bhatt	Prithviraja vijaya
Bhoja (Parmara King)	Ayurvedasarvasa Samarangana Sutradhar Sabdanusana Vyavahara Samuchaya Yaktikalpataru
Hemachandra Suri	Parisstaparvan
Bhatta bhuvandadev	Aparajit Prichha
Abu Bakr	Chachnama
Someswar III	Manasollasa
Vijnaneshwar	Mitakshara
Timutvahan	Dayabhaga
Devanabhatta	Smritichandrik
Vajradatta	Lokeshwarasataka
Jayan Gondav	Kalingattuparni

 

 

 

 

Architectural Features (800 – 1200 A.D.)

 

Nangara style

 

The fundamental characteristics of the Nagara style of temples, found all over north India are the cruciform ground plan and curvilinear tower (shikhara). They are found in the temples of Orissa, central India, western India, and temples of Mahwa and Khandesh.

 

 

1)       Orissa

·         Exhibit nagara style in its greatest purity

·         Parasaramesvara temple of Bhuvanesvar – 8^th century A.D – advance over archetypal design of the Gupta period.

·         Mukteswara temple of Bhuvanesvar – 9^th century A.D – mature expression of Nagara style

·         Lingaraja temple at Bhuvanesvar – 1100 A.D. – represents the Orissan style at maturity.

 

 

2)       Central India

·         Development of another variety of Nagara style.

·         Built by the Chandellas of Budelkhand between 950 A.D to 1050 A.D.

·         Kandariya Mahadev temple, Vishvanatha, Tinanatha, Vaidyanatha temples are prominent.

·         Red Sandstone used for construction. Great Shikars and Mandaps.

·         Temples also known for uru – sringas (allied shikhars). Rich ornamentation.

 

3)       Western India

·         Built by Chalikyas of Gujarat.

·         Characteristics of the Nagara style in W. India took a precise form.

·         Jain temples built at Dilwara, Mount Abu (Rajasthan).

·         The most noteworthy are the ones built by Vastupala and Tejhapala.

·         In these temples, while marble has been used admirably.

 

4)       Malwa and Khandesh

·         Under the Paramaras of Malwa.

·         Another variety of Nagara style developed designated as Paramara type.

·         Example is Nilakantesvara temple at Udaipur in Madhya Pradesh.

 

Dravidian Style

 

Initiated by the Pallavas, further developed are perfected by the Cholas in the Brihadesvara temple at Tanjora. The essential features of Dravidian style are the gopuram, the Vimana and the Shikhar. The Vijaynagar rulers in the 15^th and 16^th centuries added the Kalyanamandapa.

 

Vesara (Chalukyan) style

Emerged under the Chalukyas of Badami and attained it’s ripest expression under the Hoysalas of Halebid (Dwarasamudra). The Vesara style of temple architecture is a mix of both Nagara and Dravidian features.

 

Hoysalas

 

Hoysala temples are not single but double, all essential parts duplicated. Hoysala shrine are built in high – plinthed star – shaped platform on which the adifice with gorgeous sculpted panels has been built. Exquisite sculptures cover the exterior wall.

 

 

 

 

THE CHOLA EMPIRE

 

The Imperial Cholas

 

The emergence of Chola power from obscurity, its rise to an imperial position and its conflicts, first with the Rashtrakutas from beyond the Tungabhadra and later with their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, form the dominant features of the history of South India in the period A.D. 850 – 1200. The whole region south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries or more.

 

The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in A.D. 850. By the end of the ninth century, Vijayalaya successor, Aditya I Chola, wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the Pandyas, thus bringing the southern Tamil country under his control.

 

In the beginning, the Cholas were hard put to defend their position against the Rashtrakutas, but towards the end of the tenth century Chola power rapidly rose. Parantaka I (907 – 955) captured Madurai but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III, at the battle of Takkolam. But his grandson, Sundara – Chola, overcame the Rashtrakuta ruler.

 

The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (A.D. 985 – 1014) and his son, Rajendra I (A.D. 1014 – 1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy, captured the Pandyan capital Madurai, and also annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka. One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldive islands. In the north, he annexed the north – western parts of the Ganag region in north – west Karnataka and overran Vengi.

 

His son and successor, Rajendra I, continued with the annexationist policy by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera Kingdoms and including them in his empire. He also annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which remained under Chola ruler for another 50 years Rajendra I also sent an expedition against Bengal through Kalinga; his armies crossed the Ganga and defeated the Pala king, Mahipala, of Bengal and Bihar. In commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, he assumed the title Gangaikonda, and founded a capital – Gangaikonda Cholapuram. An even more remarkable exploit in his reign was the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) empire; the expedition led to the conquest of Kadaram of Kedah and number of other places in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area for some time.

 

The Chola rulers fought constantly with the later Chalukyas (of Kalyani), who had succeeded the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, for the over lordship of Vengi, the Tungabhadra Doab and the Ganga country in north – west Karnataka. No side was able to gain a decisive victory in this context, and it ultimately exhausted both the empires. However, up to A.D. 1115, the extent of the Chola Empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga I, except for the loss of Ceylon, and included the entire region south of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra extending at least up to the Godavari on the east coast. But after this the empire began to shrink.

 

By A.D. 1118, the Chola Empire was confined to the Tamil region and a relatively small area of the adjoining Telugu districts. Kulottunga III (A.D. 1178 – 1210) was the last great Chola monarch, who remained involved in the Pandyan wars of succession and sacked the Pandya capital in 1205.

 

The Chalukyan Empire disappeared at the end of the 12^th century and the Chola Empire tottered at the beginning of the 13^th century. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the South, and that of the later Chalukyas by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas. For a century thereafter, the history of south India is the history of these four kingdoms and their mutual antagonisms. Minor powers like the Telugu – Cholas of Nellore played their part as auxiliaries to the chief powers. The period was marked by no striking developments in polity or society, although industry, trade and the arts continued to flourish with their normal vigour. The Muslim invasions of the Deccan which began towards the end of the thirteenth century upset all the four kingdoms and caused a period of confusion terminated by the rise and expansion of the Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms in the second quarter of the 14^th century.

 

Rajaraja’s Military Achievements

 

·         Developing a strong navel power and destroying the then most formidable naval power of the Chera kingdom.

·         Conquering Madurai and capturing the Pandyan king.

·         Invading northern part of Sri Lanka and making it a Chola province.

·         Conquering Maldive islands.

 

 

Rajendra I’s Achievements

 

·         Conquering the whole of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

·         Conquering several Trans – Ganga states and assuming the title of Gangaikondachola.

·         Founded a new capital called Gangaikondacholapuram.

·         Indianising several lands of the South – East Asia.

·         Establishing cordial relations with the Chinese emperor.

·         Defeating the king of Sumatra in a naval campaign and annexing a portion of Sumatra to his capital.

 

There is not much information about the history of the Chera country during A.D. 850 – 1200. There are inscriptions of the several kings of the ninth century of whom Sthanuravi, a contemporary of Aditya I Chola, was the most important, and the Kottayam copper plates are associated with him. He was perhaps succeeded by Vijayaragadeva. Among the kings who followed, Bhaskara Ravivaraman (A.D. 1047 – 1106) deserves mention.

 

Under Rajaraja I Chola and his successors, Chola rule extended over the bulk of Chera country. The region revolted during the troubles preceding the accession of Kulottunga I who reconquered the Chera country and established military colonies in south Chera country. In the twelfth century there are inscriptions of the rulers of Chera; one of these rulers was conquered by Parantaka Pandya, a feudatory of Vikrama Chola (A.D. 1118 – 35).

 

Important Places Associated with Chola Administration

Thanjavur (Tanjore)                                                                                                         

 

It was the capital of the Chola Empire where Brihadeswara temple was constructed by Rajaraja I.

 

Vellur

 

Parantaka I had defeated the combined army of Pandyas and Sri Lanka here.

 

Anuradhapura

 

The capital of Sri Lanka during Chola rule which was destroyed by Rajaraja I.

 

Polannaruva

 

Rajaraja annexed this Sri Lankan city to his kingdom.

 

Annaimangalam

 

It was the village where a Shailendra ruler was permitted to construct a Chudamani Vihara.

 

Gangaikondacholapuram

 

Situated near Kaveripattanam, this city was constructed by Rajendra I after successful completion of his north India campaign.

 

Chidambaram

 

Chola kings were coronated here.

 

Uttaramerur

 

Two inscriptions related to Chola administration in the tenth century have been found here.

 

Nagapattanam

 

Situated on the Coromandel Coast, Nagapattanam was where the Shailendra ruler had constructed a Vihara during Rajaraja I’s time.

 

Mumadicholamandalam

 

The name of the new province carved out by Rajaraja from the Sri Lankan territories won by him.

 

The Ruling Dynasties of Kashmir

 

The Himalayan valley of Kashmir constituted a part of Mauryan and Kushanas empires.

Kashmir was the part of Ashoka’s empire and Srinagar is said to have been founded by him. The tradition says that Jalok, the son of Ashoka, popularized Hindu ideals in Kashmir.

 

Three dynasties the Karkota, the Utpala and the Loharas, ruled over Kashmir during the early medieval period.

 

Though the kingdom underwent a few dynastic changes but all through it remained under the control of the Brahmanas till the fourteenth century.

 

Karkota Dynasty

(Starting from A.D.630)

 

·         Founder was Durlabhavardhan, a Kashmiri Brahman.

·         Had friendly relations with Harsha.

·         Gave tooth relic of Buddha to Harsha.

·         Hiuen Tsang spent a few years in his court (A.D. 631 – 633).

·         Next great king was Lalitaditya, also known as Muktapida and was the most powerful king. He is said to have ruled from A.D. 724 to 760.

·         Was called as Mu – tu – pi in Chinese chronicles.

·          Sent embassies to China.

·         Built sun temple at Martanda.

·         Built the temple of Bhutesh, also that represents Shiva.

·         Defeated Yashovarman of Kannauj.

·         Kalhana, the historian of Kashmir, credits him with having led his troops to distant countries.

·         Defeated the Arabs – the references find mention in Rajatarangini.

·         The another illustrious ruler of this dynasty was Jayapida Vinyaditya (A.D. 779 – 810).

·         He is said to have defeated the kings of Gauda and Kannauj.

·         He was a great patron of learning and his court was adorned by Kshirasvamin, Udbhaja, Damodara Gupta, Vamana and other scholars.

·         About the middle of the ninth century the power of the Karkotas was supplanted by the Utpalas.

 

Utpala Dynasty

(From A.D. 850)

 

·         Founder was Avantivarman (855 – 883 A.D.). He was assisted in his politico administrative works by his able minister Suyya.

·         The king patronized scholars and poets. His court was adorned by two poets, Ratnakara and Anandavardhana.

·         Avantivarman Devoted more time to internal administration than to conquests. He got constructed new towns and number of irrigation works undertaken during his reign.

·         The economic prosperity of the kingdom during Avantivarman is reflected by the Kalhana’s reference that the rice was sold for 36 Dinaras per Khari, as against 200 Dinaras earlier.

·         Got constructed the town of Suryapura (Modern Sopore). It has been named after its chief architect Suyya.

·         Avantivarman also founded the city of Avantipur (Bantipur).

·         Worked on improvement in irrigation facilities and got dug Canals. Name of Suyya, a famous engineer is associated with the construction of canals.

·         Avantivarman was succeeded by his son, Samkaravarman.

 

Samkaravarman initiated the era of war and annexations and extended the boundaries of Kashmir in several directions. He seems to have come into conflict with the emperor Bhoja I of Kannauj and Lalliya Shahi of Udabhandapura or Und on the Indus, and wrested a portion of Punjab from the Gurjaras.

 

·         These wars led to excessive taxations which adversely affected the economic prosperity of the kingdom. The exhausted treasury was replenished by plundering the treasures of temples and curtailing the royal patronage of learning.

·         Samkaravarman was succeeded by his son Gopalavarman.

·         During the period of Gopalavarman, his mother Sugandha controlled the affairs of the state and acted as a virtual ruler.

·         After the death of Gopalavarman, Kashmir came to be dominated by military (Tantrins), which refers to close corporations of food soldiers who assumed the role of king makers.

·         The Tantrins in close cooperation with the ministers of the court placed a minor Nirjitavarman (cousin of Samkaravarman) on the throne. The powerful military factions of the Tantrins made themselves the virtual dictators of the state.

·         The period of corruption initiated by the court ministers and Tantrins was finally ended by the administrative and military ability of Chakravarman (brother of Nirjitavarman).

 

After the death of Chakravarman in A.D. 913 the kingdom of Kashmir once again went into the state of decline and the Utpala dynasty finally came to an end in A.D. 939.

 

Kingdom of Kashmir After Utpala’s

 

·         The king named Yasakara ruled over Kashmir till A.D. 948. He was an able ruler and was chosen by an assembly of Brahmins.

·         Yasakara was succeeded by his minor son Samgramadeva, who ruled with a regency of ministers.

·         Pravaragupta, one of the ministers of Samgramadeva, killed him and usurped the throne. He was succeeded by his unworthy son Kshemagupta, whose queen Didda (daughter of Lohara chief) had a greater say in the management of the affairs of the state.

·         After the death of Kshemagupta in A.D. 958 Didda became the virtual ruler for another fifty years.

·         Didda ruled and established efficient administration as a regent for her son Abhimanyu. She was assisted by her loyal minister Naravahana. Her name appears on the coins of Kashmir.

 

On the eve of Mahmud’s invasion Kashmir was ruled by Didda. On her death in A.D. 1003, her nephew Sangramaraja, son of king Udyaraja of Lohara (in the territory of Poonch) laid the foundation of a new dynasty, known after Lohara.

 

Rise of Lohara Dynasty (A.D. 1003)

 

·         The founder was Sangramaraja.

·         Ananta succeeded to the throne in A.D. 1028. He was assisted by his Queen Suryamati.

·         Suryamati appointed able ministers and improved the administration and finances of the kingdom.

·         Ananta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kalasa, who was assisted by his able minister Haladhara.

·         Kalasa proved disloyal to his parents but his designs against them were defeated by the military.

·         Frustrated by the activities of his son Ananta committed suicide and his queen Suryamati performed sati. This tragedy reformed Kalasa.

·         Kalasa was succeeded by his son Utkarsha, whose reign saw the revolt of his brother Vijayamalla.

·         The next important Lahore king was Harsha (brother of Kalasa). He employed Turushakas which refers to Muslim Military generals.

·         Harsha retrieved the lost glory of Kashmir by his able administration and patronage of culture and learning and art. He was also the leader of social reforms.

·         His expansionist led to wars, which ended in defeats for the king. This adversely effected the financial position of the kingdom and Harsha imposed heavy taxation and even plundered temples in search for money.

·         Revolt of Damaras and Uchchhala (the exiled general) took place during his time.

·         He was the patron of Kalhana. Harsha’s reign is narrated in Rajatarangini of Kalhana.

·         After Harsha’s death Kashmir faced a quick succession of weak Lohara rulers and finally the dynasty ended in A.D. 1172.

·         Jai Singh was the last king of the dynasty, which finds mention in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.

 

The Kingdom of Kashmir after Lohara

 

·         After Lohara’s the kingdom of Kashmir was effected by civil war, anarchy and Muslim invasions.

·         Rinchana, a Tibetan chief became the king of Kashmir in A.D. 1320. He was preceded by king Suhadeva (A.D. 1301 – 20), whose daughter Kotadevi he married.

·         With the death of Rinchana, the kingdom declined. The Hindu rule in Kashmir was finally ended in A.D. 1339 and the Muslim rule began.

 

First Muslim dynasty was founded by Shamsuddin under the title of Shah Mir Dynasty. Sikander Shah of this dynasty was great iconoclast i.e. image breaker – known as Butshikan. He is said to have destroyed the famous temple of Martand.

 

The greatest king of this dynasty was Shahi Khan who assumed the title of Zainul – Abidin. He was a liberal king and is known as the ‘Akbar of Kashmir’. He reversed the orthodox policy of Sikander Shah and also removed taxation on cremation as well as ban on Sati.

 

Because of his liberal approach, Zainul – Abidin was called ‘Budshah’ i.e. great king. He was great patron of scholars and got Mahabharata and Rajatarangini translated into Persian. He got constructed an artificial island in the woolar lake called Zainulanka and is said to have borrowed the art of paper making and book binding from Samarkand.

 

After Shahmiri dynasty Kashmiri Chaks founded new dynasty in A.D. 1561 and they ruled till Kashmir was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar in A.D. 1588.  

  

 

 

 

  

PROVINCIAL KINGDOMS

 

With the disintegration of Delhi Sultanate many provincial kingdoms rose in the power, most famous among them were Malwa, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Bengal, and Kashmir in North India and kingdom of Vijayanagar and Bahmani in South India.

 

MALWA

 

Malwa (Bhilsa and Ujjain) became a province of Delhi Sultanate in A.D. 1310 under Ala-ud-din. In 1390 Dilawar Khan Ghori was made governor by Delhi, but he ruled independently without a formal proclamation. In 1406 he died and Alp Khan ascended the throne with the title of Hushang shah (1406-1435 A.D.) He made Mandu his capital, strengthened its defences and decorated its residential building, palaces, mosques and Tombs. He died in 1435 and was buried in a marble Tomb at mandu. Mahmud Khilji’s war with Rana Kumbha of Chittor was inconclusive. Strangely enough, both sides claimed victory, and while the Rana of Mewar erected the tower of victory at Chittor, the Sultan of Malwa built a seven storyed column at Mandu to commemorate his triumph. He died in 1469.

 

·         Mahmud Khilji was succeeded by his eldest son, Muhammad Shah, under the title of Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din. He is credited with the construction of ‘Jahaj Mahal’. Mahmud Khilji II conferred the office of wazir on ‘Medini Rai’. Mahmud was defeated and killed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

·         Baz Bahadur proclaimed independence and assumed regal power and title after his father’s death in 1555. He fell in love with Rupmati and was noted for his gift of music and poetry. Baz Bahadur was the last independent ruler of Malwa. Malwa was finally annexed to the Mughal Empire in A.D. 1562 during the reign of Akbar.

 

 

GUJARAT

 

Gujarat was annexed to Delhi Sultanate in 1297 by Ala-ud-din. Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud of Tughlaq house, appointed in 1391, Zafar Khan as the Governor of Gujarat in A.D. 1407 he took the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah and founded the ‘Muzaffari Dynasty’ which continued till A.D. 1573 when it was annexed by Akbar to the Mughal Empire. Ahmad Shah was a grandson of Muzaffar Shah and he is remembered for founding the city of Ahmadabad on the Sabarmati. He died at Ahmadabad.

 

Mahmud Begara was the grandson of Ahmad Shah. He was by far the most eminent Sultan of Gujarat.

Champaner was renamed by him as ‘Muhammadabad’. Towards the close of his reign, he attempted an alliance with Egypt, to check the power of Portuguese, who monopolized the lucrative trade which passed through Egypt and Red sea to India. After his death, the decline of the empire began.

 

Bahadur Shah invaded Mandu fort and entered the city unopposed. The king of Malwa, Mahmud Khilji II was taken prisoner and his territory was annexed to Gujarat. Next year Bahadur Shah also captured the fortress of Ujjain, Bhilsa and Raisen Completing the conquest of Malwa. The Mughal Emperor, Humayun felt it necessary to stem the tide of Bahadur Shah’s conquest. He marched into Malwa and annexed Mandsor. In the reign of the last ruler Muzaffar III, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.

 

JAUNPUR

 

Firoz Shah Tughlaq founded the town of Jaunpur on the banks of the Gomti River in memory of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq (Jauna Khan)

 

Malik Sarwar Khwaja Jehan: - The Provincial governor of Jaunpur was given the title of Malik – us – Shark by Nasir – ud – din Mohammed Tughlaq, the last Tughlaq ruler. Malik Sarwar proclaimed independence after Timullane’s invasion of Delhi in 1398, but he did not assume royal titles.

 

Malik Mubarak Shah (1399 – 1402):- He was the son of Malik Sarwar. He was the first to assume royal titles, issue coins and read the Qutba in his name.

 

Ibrahim Shah (1402 – 40):- Considered the greatest ruler of Jaunpur. He beautified Jaunpur and made it a centre of art, architecture learning.

 

Mahmud Shah (1440 – 57):- He married the daughter of the last Sayyid ruler which led to friction with Bahlol Lodhi.

 

Hussain Shah (1457 – 84):- He fought with Bahlol Lodhi who defeated Hussain Shah and place Barbak Shah on the throne and created a fraternity of two Kingdoms.

 

Barbak Shah was involved in a war with his brother Sikandar Lodhi who defeated Hussain Shah and place Barbak Shah and finally annexed Jaunpur to the Delhi Sultanate.

 

The Shariqs of Jaunpur created magnificent style f architecture with lofty gates and huge arches.

It became a centre of Islamic learning and culture and Jaunpur came to be called as ‘Shiraj of the east ‘.

 Malik Mohammed Jayasi, the author of Padmavat lived at Jaunpur.

 

BENGAL  

 

The history of Bengal as an independent Kingdom may be dated from A.D.1338 when one Fakhr – ud – din taking advantage of Muhammad – Bin – Tughlaq’s trouble proclaimed himself ruler of eastern Bengal and Sonargaon its capital with the title of Fakhr – ud – din Mubarak Shah. After Ala – ud – din Ali Shah (1339 – 42) established his authority in western Bengal with Lakhnauti as its capital. Fakhr – ud – din succeeded by his son in 1339.

 

Ilyas Shahi Dynasty

 

About A.D. 1342, Ilyas, an officer of Ala – ud – din Ali Shah, made himself independent ruler of the entire Bengal assuming the title of Shams – ud – din Ilyas Shah and founded Ilyas Shahi dynasty. He overran nearby region of Bengal and went as far as Kathmandu in Nepal. Firoz Shah Tughlaq attempted twice to capture Bengal but failed. The rule of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty continued till 1415 when it was superseded by that of Raja Ganesha.

 

In 1415 Raja Ganesh assumed Bengal throne, which was opposed by Muslim nobles. They invited Ibrahim Sharqi of Jaunpur to put an end to Ganesh’s rule. Raja Ganesh was defeated and his son Jadusen, after converting to Islam became Ruler of Bengal under a new name Jalal – ud – din. In 1418 after Ibrahim Sharqi went back, Ganesh again started ruling Bengal and after him Jadusen became the ruler.

 

Jalal – ud – din Muhammad Shah shifted his capital from Pandua to Gaud. In 1420; Ibrahim Sharqi of Jaunpur attacked Bengal for the second time. It was in his court that great poet Brihaspati Mishra lived.

He translated many Sanskrit books in Bengal such as Amarkosh ( Amar Sinha), Shishupal vadh  (Magha), Mahabharata , Shakuntalam, Ritu Samhara, further , he wrote ‘ Padmachandrika ‘. In the reign of Shamsuddin – Ahmed – Shah, a Chinese ambassador came to his court in 1431 – 32. Bengal was attacked once again by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi.

 

During the reign of Rukun – ud – din Barbak Shah an army of Africans slaves was organized. There were Arabian soldiers too in this army. Barbak patronized art and literature. Maladhar Basu, the composer of Srikrishna lived under his patronage. He gave title of ‘Gunaraja’ to Maladher Basu and ‘Satya Raja’ to his son.

 

Saiyyad Hussain, the Wazir was raised to the throne by nobles of Bengal, under the title of Alaudin Hussain Shah (1493 – 1519). He was contemporary of Chaitanya and his reign is notable for the number of Hindus who occupied high offices, including throne of wazir and controller of mint. He was given various names by Hindus due to his liberal attitude, such as Krishna water, Nripati, Tilak, and Jagat Bhusan. Famous Bengali writers Maladhar Basu, Vipradas, Vijayagupta and Jasraj Khan wrote during his reign. Rupa and Sanatan lived in his court.

 

Nusrat Shah was a contemporary of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi. The Afghan rebel chiefs who were rising against Sultans sided with Nusrat Shah. He made a treaty with Babur but was assassinated soon after in A.D. 1532.After Nusrat Shah Decline set in and there followed a quick succession and one Mahmud Shah was overthrown in A.D. 1538 by Sher Khan Suri. It was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar in A.D. 1575.

 

 

ORISSA

 

In the 11^th A.D. Orissa was ruled by eastern Ganga dynasty led by brilliant ruler Anant Varman Ganga. He ruled for 72 years and founded Jagannath temple. The kings of the Ganga dynasty had raided Radha (South Bengal) and Lakhnauti even in Sultanate times. In 1434 – 35, Kapilendra founded Gajpati dynasty.

Kapilendra built Lingaraj and Konark temples. Gajpati Pratap Rudradeva was defeated by Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar. Under the Gajpatis, large parts of the Midnapore and Hugli districts were incorporated into Orissa. In 1542 Gajpati dynasty was supported Bhoi dynasty. In 1568, Orissa was annexed by Sulaiman into Bengal. In 1568 Akbar reannexed it from Bengal.

 

 

RAJASTHAN

 

Marwar

 

Marwar was ruled by the Rathors, said to be descendants of the Rashtrakutas. Rana chunda was first important ruler of Marwar who ruled from 1404 – 1424. Rana Jodha founded the fort town of Jodhpur and Mandor and in 1464 and his son Bika founded Bikaner. Marwar’s most important ruler during this period was Maldeo, who came into conflict with Sher Shah. In 1570, Akbar annexed Marwar into Mughal Empire.

 

MEWAR

 

Rana Kumbha (1433 – 68)

 

Mewar became an important Kingdom under his reign. Under him Malwa & Gujarat became enemies of Mewar. Rana Kumbha also had to contend with the Rathore of Marwar. Marwar under Rana Jodha broke away from Mewar and proclaimed independence. Rana Kumbha was successful in repulsing attacks of forces of Gujarat and Malwa. Rana Kumbha built the victory tower (kirthi stambha) at chittor in order to commenorate his victory over Mahmud Khilji I of Malwa. Rana Kumbha was a patron of learned man as well. Rana Kumbha was murdered by his son, Uda, in order to gain the throne. Uda was soon ousted, but a Fratricidal war broke out.

 

Rana Sanga (1509 – 28)

 

Rana Sanga was real name was Rana Sangram Singh. Following the internal disintegration of Malwa, a power tussle broke out between Mahmud Khilji II who turned to the ruler of Gujarat for help & Medini Rai, who turned to Rana Sanga for help. In a battle in 1517, Rana Sanga defeated Mahmud Khilji II and Malwa passed into the hands of Medini Rai. The developments in Malwa alarmed Ibrahim Lodhi in Delhi and so he invaded Mewar, but suffered a sharp reverse at the hands of Rana Sanga at Ghatoli. Ibrahim Lodhi withdrew to face Babur who defeated him in 1526 in the 1^st Battle of Panipat. Babur then defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanua in 1527. Babur defeated Medini Rai of Chanderi in 1528.

 

KASHMIR

 

Shah Mir laid the foundation of Muslim rule in Kashmir in 1339. He assumed title of Sultan Shamsuddin. Sikandar was an iconoclast, for which he came to be known as But – Shikan. He sought to enforce the policy of religious conversion and many temples during his region were desecrated, a large number of Brahmans fled from Kashmir. On the other hand his patronage of learned Muslims attracted men from Arabia, Mesopotamia and Iran. He abolished the cruel practice of Sati.

 

Zainul Abidin (1420 – 70 A.D.)

 

He was the most famous ruler of Kashmir. He was a benevolent, liberal and enlightened ruler. He reversed the policy of religious persecution of his predecessors, and heralded an era of toleration and friendliness towards the Hindu, which distinguished his reign not only in Kashmir but also in the contemporary world. He did much to diminish thefts and highway robbery by enforcing the principle of responsibility of village communities for local crimes. He lightened the burden of taxation, regulated the prices of commodities and reformed the currency.

 

He was a scholar and a man of strong moral character. He knew several languages, Arabic, Persian, Hindi and Tibetan, and was well versed in various science and arts. Under his initiative the ‘Mahabharata’ and ‘Rajatarangini’ were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and several Arabic and Persian books were translated into Sanskrit. He was the first Sultan in India to abolished the Jizyah or poll tax on non – Muslims. He recalled the Brahmans, who had fled from Kashmir due to Sikandar’s bigotry and allowed Hindus to rebuilt the temples. He deservedly had been called ‘Akbar of Kashmir’.

 

In 1586, Akbar deposed ruler Muhammad Yakub Khan and annexed Kashmir into Mughal Empire.

 

 

KAMARUPA

 

The two principal kingdoms in the area,

• Kamta (Kamarupa) in the west
• Ahoms in the East

In the 15^th century, the Khans established their rule over Kamarupa. The initial attacks of the Bengal rulers on Kamta yielded mixed results and it was only in the time of Ala – ud – din Hussain Shah that the kingdom was annexed to Bengal. Some time later, Vishasnava of the Kuch tribe emerged as the ruler of Kamarupa.

 

The Ahoms, who belonged to Shah Tribe, had established their hold on Assam by the beginning of the 13^th century. The reigning Ahom King, Suhungmung, was the most outstanding ruler of the dynasty. On adopting Hindu customs and ways, he changed his name to Svarga Narayana. Vaishnavism made great strides in the region due to the efforts of Sankara Deva, the great reformer. An attack by a son of Ala – ud – din Hussain was repulsed by the Ahom ruler, who was also able to extend his kingdom. The Ahoms conquered Kamarupa and retained their hold over it and Assam throughout the period of the Delhi Sultanate.

 

 

BAHMANI KINGDOM

 

The later years of Muhammad bin Tughlaq witnessed several revolts causing disintegration of the empire and one such rebellion led to the rise of the Bahmani Empire. In 1346 – 47, Jafar Khan assumed the title of Hasan Bahman Shah and laid the foundation of independent Bahmani Empire.

Ala – ud – din Hasan Bahman Shah expanded his kingdom by overtaking the principalities of Kandhar, Kotgiri, and Bidar etc. Kapaya Nayak of Warangal was forced to surrender the fort of Chaul. He even succeeded in wresting Raichur from Vijayanagar rulers. His rule was legitimized by Khalifa. His coins refer him as Sikander II. He divided his empire into four parts – Gulberga, Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar and made Gulberga his capital.

 

Muhammad – I, the son of Ala – ud – din assumed power in Bahmani after him. He established a council consisting of eight (8) ministers and decentralized his provincial administration to some extent. Muhammad I had to fight battle with Vijayanagar and Telangana’s Kapaya Nayak.

 

Firoz Shah was the most remarkable figure in the Bahmani kingdom. Firoz was determined to make Deccan the cultural centre of India. He encouraged learned people from Iran, Iraq and Delhi Darbar to settle in Deccan. He inducted Hindus in the administration on large scale. It is said that from his time the Deccan Brahmans became very dominant in administration, particularly the revenue administration and provided a balance against the influx of foreigners. He encouraged pursuit of astronomy and built an observatory near Daulatabad. He founded city of Firozabad on the bank of river Bhima.

 

Firoz defeated Devaraya – I who bough peace by offering 10 lakhs of hunas, pearls, elephants and agreed to marry his daughter to Firoz ceding him in dowry Bankapur in Doab. Later Devaraya allied with Warangal and inflicted shattering defeat on Firoz and annexed entire kingdom upto the mouth of Krishna River. Firoz was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah I.

 

Ahmad Shah I continued the struggle for the domination of the eastern seaboard in south India. He shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in order to consolidate his hold over newly acquired territories and also because Bidar had good climate and was free from court politics of nobles. Bidar was renamed as Muhammadabad. Ahmad Shah is also known as Wali or saint due to his association with Gesu Daraz.

 

Humayun is known for his cruelty which earned him the title of Zalim. He appointed Mahmud Gawan as his prime minister. Ahmad III was only 8 years old when he assumed the throne, hence in administrative council consisting of his mother Shah Turkan, Mahmud Gawan and two other members would run the administration. Mahmud Gawan was given the title of Khwaja – e – Jahan by Shamsuddin III. The history of Bahmani Empire for next 20 years is that of supremacy of Mahammud Gawan. The kingdom reached the height of its power and territorial limit during the Chief Ministership of Mahmud Gawan. He was an Iranian by birth and was first a trader. In 1482, due to the state conspiracies led by Deccan nobles, Mahmud Gawan was executed by Muhammud Shah – III. This led to the downfall of Bahmani Kingdom.

 

      

SUCCESSION STATES OF BAHMANI

 

1.       Bidar: - The Barid Shahi of Bidar was founded by Amir Ali Barid in 1538. He died in 1542. His son Ali Barid Shah distinguished himself by commanding the left wing of the allied armies in the battle of Talikota. In 1619 Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah to Bijapur.

2.       Berar: - The founder of the Imad Shahi dynasty was Fathullah Imadul Mulk in 1484. Berar was absorbed by Ahmad Nagar in 1574.

3.       Ahmadnagar: - The founder of Nizam Shai dynasty was Malik Ahmad. He founded the city of Ahmadnagar and shifted his capital there from Junar. The importance of Ahmadnagar lies in the historic resistence offered by ‘Chand Bibi’ to Akbar’s son Murad, and the military as well as administrative skill of ‘Malik Amber’. Shahjahan annexed Ahmadnagar in 1636.

4.       Bijapur: - The founder of Adil Shah Dynasty was Yusuf Adil Shah in 1489 – 90. Adil Shah II was a great patron of learning and was affectionately called ‘Jagad Guru ‘. Aurangzeb annexed it in 1686.

5.       Golconda: - The founder of the Qutub Shahi dynasty was Quli Qutub Shah, a Turkish officer of Muhammad Shah Bahman. Golconda was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687.

 

 

 

 

VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM

 

The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in A.D. 1336 by Harihara and Bukka – the Sangama brothers. It appears that the two brothers were first in the service of Kakatia of Warangal and when the kingdom was annexed by the Muslims they switched over to Kampili. When the same fate fell on Kampali too, they were taken to Delhi as prisoners and forced to embrace Islam. However, they were subsequently released and reappointed as ministers in the Kingdom of Kampili, where they declared themselves free and found the Kingdom of Vijayanagar with the blessing of sage Vidyaranya of the Sringeri Matha. They also reconverted to Hindusim by Vidyaranya. Four different dynasties ruled Vijayanagar during the period of 1336 to 1672.

 

They were as follows:

 

1.       Sangama dynasty: – 1336 – 56, founded by Harihara and Bukka.

2.       Saluva dynasty: – 1485 – 1505, founded by Saluva Narsimha.

3.       Taluva dynasty: – 1505 – 1556, founded by Veera Narsimha.

4.       Aravidu dynasty: – 1556 – 1672, founded by Tirumala.

 

 

SANGAM DYNASTY (1336 – 1485)

 

Harihar – I: - Undertook the task of expanding Vijayanagar with the help of his brother Bukka – I. Hoyasala was made a part of Vijayanagar after the defeat and death of the last Hoyasala ruler Ballala – IV in 1346 while fighting against Madura. It was during the reign of Harihar that long drawn struggle with Bahmani began. The occupation of Raichur Doab by Ala – ud – din Bahmani Shah provided the immediate cause for the struggle.

 

Bukka – I: - assumed the throne in 1356. He fought two main battles. He laid the army himself against Bahmani kingdom while his son Kampan carried out battle with Madurai. Chief source of information of Madura campaign is Sanskrit poem ‘Madura Vijayam’ composed by Gangadevi wife of Kampan. Bukka – I was succeeded by Harihara – II. Under him Vijayanagar Empire adopted a policy of expansion towards eastern court. Harihara – II’s greatest success was in wresting Belgaon and Goa from rulers of Bahmani. He also captured ports of Dabhol and Khurepatan. In 1398 – 99 a battle was fought between Bahmani and Vijayanagar resulting in conclusion of a treaty. They accepted the boundary existing prior to the war. Sayana, a brother of Vidyaranya, was the chief minister to Harihara – II.

 

Devaraya – I: - was defeated by Firoz Shah and he had to pay 10 lakh hunas, pearls and elephants as indemnity. He also agreed to marry his daughter to the Sultan ceding to him in dowry Bankapur in the Doab to obviate all future dispute. His greatest achievement was his irrigation works where a dam was built on Tungabhadra River and another on Harira with canals leading to the city. Nicolo Conti visited Vijayanagar during his reign and has left varied description of city, celebration of festivals of Mahanavami, Depavali and Holi.

 

Devaraya – II: - In 1423, son of Viravijaya and grandson of Devaraya – I succeeded the throne. Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh, visited Vijayanagar during his reign. According to Nuniz, Devaraya – II would receive tribute from Quilon, Srilanka, Pulicut, Pegu and Tenasserim (Burma and Malaya) through Bahmani rulers defeated Devaraya – II several times. He also enlisted Muslims into army, gave them Jagirs and freedom to build mosques.

 

Mallikarjuna received the throne in 1447. He is also known as ‘Praudh Devaraya’. His regime marks the beginning of decline of Vijayanagar Empire. Vijayanagar was ruled by Veerupaksha II between 1465 to 1485. During his reign, Vijayanagar lost Goa, Chennai, Dabhol and vast chunk of imperial territory to Bahmanis. Virupaksha II was killed by his own son in 1485 thereby bringing to an end of Sangama dynasty.

 

 

SALUVA DYNASTY (1485 – 1505)

 

Saluva Narsimha was the founder of Saluva dynasty. He put an end to the Chaos, suppressed rebellious Samantas. Nuniz mentions that Narsimha began trading in horses from Ormuz and Adan. Narsimha however, could not rule for long. Immadi Narsimha (1490 – 1505) was a weak ruler, the affairs of the state fell in the hands of Narsa Nayaka who became the real power behind the throne and after his death Vira Narsimha, his son, deposed Immadi Narsimha and laid the foundation of Taluva dynasty.

 

 

TALUVA DYNASTY

 

Vira Narsimha was the first king of Taluva dynasty. He became king after assassinating Immadi Narsimha. He adopted the title of Bhujabala. He established friendly relations with Portuguese and sent a diplomatic mission to secure their help.

 

Krishnadeva Raya was the greatest of all Vijayanagar rulers and one of the most fascinating personalities in Indian history. Early in his reign he faced an invasion by Mahmud Shah Bahman and inflicted a crussing defeat on him. He also captured Raichur, Gulberga and Bidar. He also fought many battles and extended his territory.

 

He is also known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’ he was a great patron of arts and letters; himself being a scholar and poet, wrote ‘Amkatamalyoda’, a Telugu work on polity and ‘Jambavatikalyanam’ in Sanskrit. In his court flourished ‘Ashtadiggajas’ eight famous Telugu poets. Peddana, a great poet wrote the ‘Manucharita’ and was awarded the title ‘Andhrapitamah’. Krishnadeva Raya maintained friendly relations with Portuguese.

 

Krishnadeva Raya was succeeded by Achyuta Raya. Immediately after his accession, he had to repulse the invasion of Ismail Adil Khan for the seizure of Raichur Doab. He also defeated the Gujarat ruler and Sultan of Golconda. He invaded Bijapur and forced to sue for peace. He was succeeded by his son Venkata I.

 

During Sadasiva Raya’s reign the defacto ruler was Rama Raya. He took an active part in the politics of Muslims states. In A.D 1565 all the Sultans of the Deccan with the exception of Berar, joined a coalition against Vijayanagar and encamped at Talikota. The battle also known as battle of Krishna was fought on Jan 23, 1565 between two villages Rakshasa and Tangadi. The Vijayanagar forces were completely defeated and Rama Raya decapitated. This was soon followed by the destruction of the city of Vijayanagar itself. Thus Rama Raya’s policy of playing off one Muslim state against another to secure balance of power in favour of Vijayanagar at the end, went against it. Sadasiva continued to rule for a few years more and on his death the Aravidu dynasty came to power.

 

ARAVIDU DYNASTY (1570 – 1649)

 

Tirumala was the founder of Aravidu dynasty. He made Penukonda its capital.

 

He was succeeded by Sriranga – I followed by Venkata – II. Venkata was successful in suppressing revolts of Tammaya and Lingam. Dutch and English were able to consolidate their position of eastern coast. Dutch factory was established at Nagapattanam and Masulipattam with Golkonda’s permission. Nayaka of Jingee allowed them to open factories at St.Fort David and Devapattanam in 1610. Venkata gave permission to open factory at Pulicut and monopoly in Trade. He allowed Christian missionaries to build churches and spread Christianity in his kingdom. During his reign capital was transferred from Penukondu to Chandragiri and finally Vellore.

 

 

ADMINISTRATION

 

The King, referred as Raja was central to the entire administrative structure based on principle of absolute monarchy, but of the benevolent type. He enjoyed absolute authority in executive, legislative and judicial matters. He was the highest court of appeal and supreme law giver. The ministers and Nayaks played influential role in selection of kings. When a minor succeeded the throne the practice of appointing regent to look after the administration was also the prominent. Veer Narsimha, Narsa Nayak, and Rama Raya were some of the prominent regents of Vijayanagar.

 

There was a council of minister, headed by Prime Minister, to assist and advise the King in administrative matter. Central administration was divided into several departments each supervised by a royal officer. A distinct feature of Vijayanagar state was importance of Brahmanas as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders.

 

The empire was divided into different administrative units as Mandalams or Rayas (provinces), Nadus (districts) Sthala or Seema (sub – dist) and finally to Gramas. Each province was under a governor called Nayaka. The Vijayanagar rulers did not interfere in local administration. Gauda was village headman. Under Krishna – deva Raya, the number of Rayas or Mandalas was highest. Military chiefs or warriors held title of Nayaka. Vijayanagar inscription refers to the Nayakas as territorial magnates with political aspirations. Before 1565, Nayakas were military leaders dependent on rulers but after 1565 they became semi – independent.

 

SOCIETY AND RELIGION

 

·         Four castes existed in the Vijayanagar society. Viprulu (Brahmana) were teachers and priests. Rajula (Kshatriyas) were merchants, Nala Vajati varu (Shudra) were agriculturists, Vipravinodini (Artisans) were weavers and they formed prominent community. Social groups in south India had less interaction with groups at some distance from their locality. They gave preference to cross – cousins and material uncle – niece marriages.

·         Lower classes were divided into left – handers ‘Illangai’ (engaged in mobile artisan production and extensive trade in non – agricultural products) and right – handers (engaged in agricultural activities). While right – hander, ‘Valangai’ were Vaishnava. Left – handers, Idangai were Shaivas.

·         The basis of social order was peasants on who all sections of the society were dependent. References of both male and female slaves are found in Vijayanagar literature. Sale and purchase of human beings was called ‘Besavega’. Non – payment of debt was also a reason of slavery. Women played active role in society and in public life. They were astrologers, musicians, accountants, wrestlers.

·         There were certain evil practices in vogue which has also been taken note of by various foreign travellers. Sati or Saligaman has been mentioned by Paes. Besides, child marriage, polygamy and dowry were also prevalent. Condition of widow was pitiable but they could remarry. Marriage tax was not imposed on widow marriage.

·         Temples were great landholders and also carried on economic activities. They employed a number of persons, purchased local goods, and gave loans to individuals, village assemblies. Temples had their trusts which utilized its funds for various purposes. Another significant feature of temple economy was participation of both Brahmanas and non – Brahmanas in the management of Mathas.

 

 

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

 

·         Agriculture was the mainstay of economic life. Rice was the staple crop, both variety (black and white) being cultivated from Coromandal to pulicat. Land revenue was the chief source of income. Rate of revenue demand varied in different parts and also according to fertility and location of the land. It was generally 1/6^th of the produce but in some cases even upto 1/4^th. On Brahmana and temples it was 1/20^th and 1/30^th respectively.

·         Mainly there were three types of land revenue Amara, Manya and Bhandarvada – indicating the way in which village income was distributed. Bhandarvada was crown land of the smallest category. A part of its income was utilized to maintain Vijayanagar forts. Income from Manya (tax – free) village was used to maintain Brahmanas, temples, and mathas. Amara was the largest category given to Amar – Nayakas. The holders enjoyed only privileges and proprietorship.

·         Besides land tax, many professional taxes were also imposed, property. Grazing, house taxes. Sthala daryam, mayadayam, manula dayam were three major transit dues. Tank irrigation was most popular under Vijayanagar. Tanks were constructed both by rulers as well as Nayakas.

·         The contemporary foreign accounts show that both local and long distance trade increased under Vijayanagar rulers. The role of Indians in overseas trade was minimum. Trade was controlled by Arabs and later Portugese. Horses were brought from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the west – coast ports. Goa supplied horses to Vijayanagar as well as Bahmani. Besides horses, ivory, pearls, spices, precious stones, coconuts, palms, sugar salt etc. were also imported. Pearls were brought from Persian Gulf, Ceylon and precious stones from Pegu. Velvet from Mecca and Satin, Silk and brocade from China. Rice, sugarcane and corn were major exports. Diamond was imported from Vijayanagar.

 

 

 

MUGHAL EMPIRE

 

 

ZAHIR – UD – DIN MUHAMMAD BABUR

 

Babur was the founder of Mughal Empire in India. His real name was Zahir – ud – din Muhammad Babur. His father Omar Shaikh Mirza was a petty chieftain of Fargana, now in Uzbekistan, in Central Asia. He was a worthy descendent of Amir Timur from his father’s side and of Changez Khan from his mother side. His families belonged to the ‘Chagatai’ section of the Turkish race and were commonly known as Mughals. He became the ruler of Fargana in Transixiana at the age of 12 after the death of his father.

 

Babur’s first invasion of India was directed against the Yusufzai tribe in 1519 A.D. He captured Bhira during this expedition and used gun – powder for the first time. Daulat Khan Lodhi of Lahore was greatly insulted by his nephew and Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodhi. Similarly, Alam Khan, another uncle of Ibrahim, ran to the Punjab for his life. They invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. He at once started his fourth expedition in 1524. But Daulat Khan turned hostile and tried to check his guest. After defeating Daulat Khan, Babur went back to Kabul to get more reinforcements. Both Daulat Khan and Alam Khan had proved faithless.

 

First Battle of Panipat (21 April, 1526 A.D.)

 

On hearing the news of Babur’s approach Ibrahim collected a huge force numbering about 1, 00,000 and marched against Babur. Babur had 12,000 soldiers but they were all well – trained and better – disciplined. Both the armies met on 21^st April, 1526 on the historic place of Panipat. Babur arrayed his army on very scientific lines and used his artillery to his great advantage. At last Babur’s generalship bore fruit and the enemy took to their heels leaving about 15000 men dead on the battle field. The ill – fated Lodhi monarch, Ibrahim Lodhi, was also one of the dead. This was a decisive victory for Babur which made him an undisputed master of Delhi and Agra.

 

The first cause responsible for the defeat of Ibrahim was his general unpopularity. Babur’s use of artillery was another cause of his success against Ibrahim. Babur’s two great generals, Ustad Ali and Mustafa, also made the use of their cannon and killed the enemy in large numbers. Moreover, Babur’s army was better disciplined and was fully conversant with the latest war – tactics. His soldiers knew how to create panic in the enemy by taking them in the rear while acting on the Uzbegi – tactics of “Tulughama”. The political condition of India and the lack of unity in this country also proved a great blessing for Babur. It was easy for him to defeat petty states and small principalities one by one rather than facing a well organized and all – powerful Empire.

 

 

Battle of Khanwa (1527 A.D.)

 

The establishment of the new empire in the Indo – Gangatic valley by Babur was a threat to Rana Sanga’s ambition, who himself was intending to enlarge his dominions towards the valley. Many Afghans including Mahamud Lodhi, a younger brother of Ibrahim Lodhi rallied to Rana Sanga. Hasan Khan Mewati, the ruler of Mewat also joined Sanga. Babur declared the war against Sanga as jihad. Rana Sanga was injured badly but was carried away to safety by his men in March 1527. The battle of Khanwa secured Babur’s position in the Delhi – Agra region. He assumed the title of ‘Gazi’ after his victory.

 

Battle of Chanderi (1528 A.D.)

 

Babur followed up his successes at Khanwa and led a campaign against Medini Rai of Chanderi in Malwa. Chanderi was captured after Rajput defenders had died fighting to the last man and their women performed Jouhar.

 

Battle of Ghagra (May 1529 A.D.)

 

Babur met the allied forces of Bihar and Bengal (under Nusrat Shah) on the Bank of river of Ghagra near the Junction with Ganga at Patna and inflicted crushing defeat on them.

 

Thus with the help of these battles Babur extended his dominions from the Oxus to Ghagra and from the Himalayas to Gwalior. He took the title of Badshah. He was also known as Kalandar because of his liberal natura. Babur died on 26 December 1530 at the age of 48. He was buried at Arambagh in Agra for sometime and later shifted to Kabul according to his wish. Babur successes in India were mainly due to Ottoman (Rumi) device of warfare and use of gun powder for the first time in India. Babur’s had a refined test of literary activities. He wrote his own biography ‘Tuzuk – I – Baburi’ in Turkish. In this he has mentioned about the political, social, cultural and geographical conditions of India. Only Hindu state about which he has mentioned is Krishnadev Roy of Vijayanagar Empire. It was translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan – Khanan known as Baburnama.

 

 

NASIR – UD – DIN MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN

 

Humayun was born to Mahamanga in 1508 in Kabul. The word Humayun means the fortunate, but Lane Pool remarked, “Never was an unlucky sovereign so miscalled”. He had to tackle with several problems. Afghans could not be subdued by Babur and the administration of the new empire was not yet consolidated. His brothers also challenged him. At the time of Babur’s death Kamran was the governor of Kabul, Kandhar and Punjab, Askari of Sambhal and Hindal at Alwar and Mewat. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat also created adverse situation for Humayun.

 

Campaign of Kalinjar

 

Humayun had to march against the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand just after six months of his coronation in 1531 A.D. The ruler of Kalinjar was considered as the supporter of the Afghans. The Mughals encircled the fort for several months and Humayun did compromise at last. This was a big mistake because the ruler of Kalinjar could easily be a friend to the Mughals.

 

Eastern Campaign (1532 A.D.)

 

Humayun was compelled to leave Kalinjar under the pressure of Mahmud Lodhi under whose leadership the Afghans of Bihar were marching towards Jaunpur. In 1532 at a place called Daurah, he defeated the Afghans forces. Then he proceeded towards Chunar which was the most powerful fort and regarded as the ‘gateway of eastern India’. It had come into the possession of Sher Khan. Humayun continued the siege of Chunar for four months. An offer was made by Sher Khan that he be allowed to retain the possession of the fort and in return he promised to remain loyal to the Mughals and sent one of his sons, Qutub Khan, to Humayun as hostage.

 

Gujarat Menace

 

Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat was an able and ambitious ruler. He besieged Chittor according to some later legends, Rani Karnawati; the widow of Rana Sanga sent Rakhi to Humayun and sought his help. Humayun moved from Agra to Gwalior. Seeing the danger Bahadur Shah struck an understanding. He retreated with loads of cash and kind leaving the fort of Chittor. On 17^th February, 1537, Bahadur Shah was treacherously killed by Portuguese. This took care of Humayun’s trouble on western fort.

 

Battle of Chausa

 

On 26^th June 1539, ‘battle of Chausa’ was fought between Sher Shah and Humayun’s army. Humayun was badly defeated. He barely escaped his life from the battle field, swimming across the Karamnasa River with the help of a water carrier. Sher Khan assumed the title of Sher Shah after his victory. This was the beginning of Humayun’s misfortune.

 

Battle of Kannauj

 

Humayun organized his army hastily with the help of his brothers Hindal and Askari; two armies exchanged swords at Kannauj (May 1540). This battle decided the fate of two. Humayun became a king without a kingdom. He wondered in Sindh for next half years. Humayun reached Iranian court and took shelter in the palace of Shah Tahmasp under whose pressure and influence he became a Shia from Sunni.

 

Battle of Machhiwara and Sirhind

 

Sher shah’s son Islam Shah died and the Sur’s empire became a centre of intrigues. Humayun considered that the time was ripe to make a come back to India. He reached Peshawar in December 1554 where Bairum Khan met him after crossing Indus River. The Mughals occupied Lahore in 1555 without any protest and marched towards Delhi. On 15^th May, 1555, the Mughals fought a successive battle against the Afghans at Machhiwara. The Afghans fought bravely under the leadership of Nasib Khan and Tatar Khan. But they could not resist the Mughals. One more battle was fought at Sirhind against Sikandar Sur. From Sirhind Humayun marched towards Delhi and entered the city on 20 July, 1555. On 23 July, his coronation was organized for second time.

 

On 27 January, 1556, he fell from the stairs of Sher Mandal, a Library at Dinpanah and died. His Begum constructed a beautiful tomb near the fort of Dinpanah. Architect of this tomb was Mirza Inayatullah. Humayun brought two painters from Iran – Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdus Samad. He got built two mosques, one at Agra and the other at Fatehabad in Hissar.

 

 

JALAL – UD – DIN MUHAMMAD AKBAR (1556 – 1605)

 

Akbar was born to Hamida Banu Begum at Amarkot in Rana Veersal’s palace. Akbar showed his caliber at the battle field when the captured Sirhind from Sikandar Sur in 1555 when he was only 13 years old. Humayun declared him crown prince. After Humayun’s retaking over of the royal throne he was made the governor of Lahore under the tutelage of Bairam Khan. When Humayun died Akbar was at Kalanauar in Punjab. On 10 February, 1556 Bairam Khan erected a brick made throne in hurry and Akbar was declared the Badshah of Hindustan. Bairam Khan was appointed as the waqil and given the title of Khan – e – Khana. He was a Shia by faith while the Mughals were Sunni Musalmans. He found the situation of the empire in difficulties. The Afghans beyond Agra were still a force to reckon with. With Sikandar Sur still smarting in Punjab in the Shivalik hills and with Hemu as master of Agra and Delhi, thus Akbar’s position was very precarious. Bengal, Bihar, Malwa and Gujarat had reasserted their independence.

 

Second Battle of Panipat (5 November, 1556)

 

The most serious threat to Mughal was from Hemu the prime minister of Adil Shah of Sur Dynasty. Hemu was a great warrior and did not lose a single battle out of 22 that he fought. Adil Shah appointed him as wazir with the title of Vikarmaditya and had entrusted him with the task of expelling the Mughals. Hemu captured Agra and defeated the Mughals near Delhi and occupied the city. Bairam Khan took energetic step to meet the situation. The battle between the Mughals and the Afghan forces led by Hemu, took place at Panipat on 5^th November 1556. Although the tide of battle was in favour of Hemu but an arrow hit him in his eyes and he lost his control and fainted. Leaderless Afghan army lost to Mughals and with this Akbar had virtually reconquered his empire.

 

Fall of Bairam

 

The fort of Gwalior, Jaunpur, Ajmer and Ranthambhor were successfully occupied under the regency of Bairam Khan. Bairam Khan’s success made him ambitious and vain and he tried to perpetuate his dominance by removing his rivals and opponents from the field. Akbar took an intelligent step. He left Agra on the pretext of hunting and reached Delhi. From Delhi he made a tactful move to place himself at the helm of affairs. He issued firman and dismissed Bairam Khan from his office in 1560 A.D. He called upon all the nobles to come and submit to him personally in order to assert his position and power.

 

Akbar invited Bairam Khan cordially and asked him to proceed to Mecca but on the way at Patna near Ahmadabad he was murdered by an Afghan fanatic whose father was killed by the former at the battle of Machchiwada in 1555 A.D. Akbar married his widow, Salima Begum, and brought up the child as his son, who became famous as Abdur Rahim Khan – I – Khanan.

 

Influence of Harem (1560 – 62)

 

But after Bairam, for two more years (1560 – 62), Akbar remained under the influence of the court ladies, particularly his foster mother Maham Anaga and her son Adham Khan. Maham Anga withdrew from politics but her son remained active. He became independent when he was sent to lead expedition against Malwa. Adham Khan killed the acting wazir. Akbar could not take this act of defiance. Adham was thrown down from the parapet, thereafter he died in 1562. Meanwhile, Maham Anaga also passed away. Thus in 1562, Akbar was able to emancipate himself from Harem influence.

 

Policy of Expansion

 

·         After the battle of Panipat First military expedition of Akbar was Gwalior and Jaunpur. In 1561 Chunar and Jaunpur were included in the Mughal Empire. Baz Bahadur had to flee from Malwa to take shelter with the Rana of Mewar. Seeing no hope of recovering his territory he submitted before Akbar. He was enlisted as a Mughal mansabdar. In course of time he rose to the rank of 2000.

·         The ruler of Gondwana at that point of time was Rani Durgawati. Rani Durgawati had placed her minor son Veer Narayan on the throne and was ruling the kingdom. Akbar forced Asaf Khan to submit his illegal gains. He restored the kingdom of Garhkatanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah.

·         Chittor was a very powerful fort and mend the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat. The fort was considered a symbol of Rajput spirit in resistance. After a six month long siege the fort of Chittor fell in 1568. Rana Udai Singh the ruler had retired to the hills, leaving Patta in charge of the fort.

·          Mughal army indulged in senseless massacre of Rajput soldiers and peasants who had taken refugee in the fort. It is noteworthy that this is the first time that Akbar indulged in such carnage. Jaimal and Patta fought valiantly and Akbar ordered that two stone statues of these warriors seated on elephants, be erected outside the gate of the Agra fort. After Chittor, Ranthambhor was conquered and Bikaner, Jaisalmer submitted, Mewar, however, continued to resist, under Rana Pratap.

·         Gujarat attracted Akbar’s attention due to its commercial and strategic importance. The state was in a bad shape after the death of Bahadur Shah. In 1573, Akbar took lighting campaign. Mujaffar Shah was killed and Gujarat was annexed. In order to commemorate the annexation he built up Buland Darwaja in Fatehpur Sikri, the highest gateway in world made of red stone. It is 176 ft high built in Persians and Gujarati style.

·         Mughal army invaded Bengal and after a tough battle, defeated Daud Khan at Turkoi in 1575, and he was forced to sue for peace. In 1576, in a stiff battle Daud was defeated and killed, which put an end to Afghan trouble in the east.

·         The battle was fought between Rajput forces led by Maharana Pratap and Mughal forces led by Raja Man Singh of Amber and Asaf Khan in 1576. Rana Pratap was defeated but continued to struggle and recaptured enemy forts except Chittor, till 1597 when he died. In 1599 Akbar sent another army led by Prince Salim and Rajput chief Man Singh. However, due to bitter conflict between them no sustained efforts cold be taken against Mewar.

·         His cousin Mirza Hakim, who was son of Kamaran, the governor of Kabul had declared himself independent. Akbar led the campaign to Kabul on 18^th February, 1581. Mirza ran away from Kabul, hearing the news of Akbar’s advance. Akbar entrusted the governorship of Kabul to his cousin sister and sister of Mirza, Bakhtunisha Begum and returned to Agra. In 1585, when Mirza died. Man Singh was appointed as governor and thus Kabul became a part of Mughal Empire.

·         In 1585, Akbar moved to North – West frontier and stayed there until 1598. These fourteen years of stay in this region proved crucial for Mughal impression and consolidation in this region. He had compelled in this region to fall the attempts of ambitious Abdullah Khan Uzbek to siege Kabul. During this period he sent three crucial expeditions – one to Kashmir, second to Sind and third against Raushanias from his camp at Hasan Abdal.

 

 

Deccan

 

The break up of Bahmani Empire provided an ideal situation for Mughal expansion. Akbar wanted to annex the Shiite states that, he feared may along with the Shah of Iran can pose threat to the Mughal authority. In 1591, he sent separate ambassadors to Ahmad Nagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Khandesh asking them to accept Mughal authority. Except for Khandesh all other states refused the Mughal offer.

 

In 1595, when Sultan Burhan of Ahmadnagar died, various Nizamshahi, leaders started fight over the vacant throne of Ahmadnagar. On this occasion some nobles from Nizamshahi invited Akbar to interfere and thus providing Akbar formable condition to Mughal expansion. Mughal army under Abdul Rahim Khankhana Prince Murad, the governor of Gujarat invaded Ahmadnagar and Mughal army marched to the capital without facing much of a resistence. Chand Biwi, along with the minor prince Bahadur secured herself inside the fort. Mughal army, after a siege of four months forced her to sue for peace. She offered in 1596 to give Berar to Mughals and in turn Mughals recognized Bahadur as the new ruler of Ahmadnagar. Concession of Berar by Chand Biwi was opposed by Bijapur, Golconda. The combined forces of all three Deccani states were defeated. Chand Biwi was murdered by her opponents. Mughal captured Ahmad Nagar and Balaghat in 1600. In 1601 fort of Asirgarh in Khandesh was secured and Khandesh was incorporated.

 

Akbar married his son Daniyal with the daughter of Ibrahim Adil Shah – II (1602) in order to reach some agreement with Bihapur. But Daniyal died of excessive drinking soon after the marriage (1602) and Akbar also died in 1605 as a result of Bijapur, Golconda and many other Deccan states continued to exist outside the Mughal dominace. The Asirgarh victory in 1601, proved to be the last victory of Akbar in Deccan.

 

 

Religious Policy

 

Akbar was more traditional in outlook. He showed due respect to the Ulemas. In 1562, after having friendly relations with the Rajputs Akbar followed liberal measures in the field of religion. Almost immediately after assuming charge of the government, Akbar demonstrated his broad – mindedness when in 1563 he remitted pilgrim – tax. Earlier, he had forbidden the enslavement of the wives and children of rebellious villagers. He also married Rajput princess without first converting them to Islam, and even allowed them to continue their own religious worship within the places. Although Akbar was under the influence of the orthodox Ulema at the time, his state policy not only reflected the liberal traditions of his predecessors, but was a clear recognition of the need to conciliate and win over the Hindus. It was in this context that in 1564, steps were taken by Akbar to abolish Jaziya. During this period Akbar behaved like an orthodox Muslim, he scrupulously observed daily prayers, and even cleaned the mosque with his own hands.

 

His religious policy entered in to second phase in 1573. This was a phase of intense discussions and introspection on the part of Akbar which led to a radical change in his religious views. This was the background to the building of the Ibadat Khana, or the Hall of Prayers at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575. At first; the Ibadat Khana debates were open only to Muslims. However, after a mystical experience in 1578, Akbar opened the doors of debate to Hindus belonging to various sects, Jains, Christians and Zoroastrians. This led to further confusion. He held discussion with Brahmin scholar Purushottam and Devi. The eminent Jain divine, Harivijaya Suri stayed at royal court for two years. Jain scholar Jin Chandra Suri, Zoroastrian priest Dastur Mahyarji Rana of Navasari also participated in the Ibadat Khana. The Portuguese Aquaviva and Monserrate remained at Akbar’s court for three years. Soon Akbar became convinced of the futility of these debates and closed the Ibadat Khana practically in 1581, but finally in 1582.

 

To further strengthen his position in dealing with the mullahs, Akbar issued a declaration of Mahzar. The Mahzar or attested statement signed by seven leading Ulema issued in 1579, has led to a good deal of controversy. The real significance of the Mahzar, it seems, was that “it was the first effective declaration of the principles of (Sulh – I – Kul) which he (Akbar) had decided to implement firmly”. Akbar also reminded the Ulema through the document that the state machinery was meant for the welfare of the people.

 

In 1581 – 82, (The final phase) Akbar inaugurated Tauhid – I – Ilahi, unity of all religions which later came to be known as Din – I – Ilahi which was an organic code. It was a synthesis of all the religious, based largely on the Islamic philosopher, Ibn – I – Arabi. Abul Fazl does not use the word Din – I – Ilahi but Tauhid – I – Ilahi or Divine monotheism, while Badayuni uses both the terms. Abul Fazl links it with the concept of Akbar being the spiritual guide of the people. Din – I – Ilahi has been criticized by Badayuni. Vinsent Smith has called it as monument of Akbar’s folly and not of his wisdom. Balban (Mahesh Das) was only Hindu to accept Din – I – Ilahi.

 

NOOR – UD – DIN MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR (1605 – 1627)

 

Prince Salim who assumed the title of Noor – ud – din Muhammad Jahangir was born in 1569 A.D. at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. Rahim Khan – I – Khana was appointed his tutor and he was given proper education of Persian. Turk, Arabic, Mathematics, Hindi, History, Geography, and other useful subjects. His military life began in 1581 when he was given the task of conquering Kabul. After that, he was given the training of civil administration. In 1585, he was married to Manbai, the daughter of his maternal uncle and king of Amer Bhagwan Das. In 1587 he married Jodhabai or Jagat Gosain, a daughter of Udai Singh, who gave birth to prince Khurram in 1592. Emperor Akbar was fed up with the behaviour of his son Salim who was in the habit of excessive drinking and indulgence in sensuous affairs. On October 3^rd, 1605 Akbar died after an attack of dysentery. Salim succeeded his father. He issued 12 firmans or ordinates on 16^th October 1605. He was justice loving, huge bell with a chain of 30 yards was placed at the gate of royal palace in Agra and anybody who sought justice from Emperor had to strike the bell.

 

In April 1606, Prince Khusro revolted against his father. He was supported by Hussain Beg. Diwan of Lahore, Guru Arjun Dev, Aman Singh, besides Mirza Aziz Koka ( father – in – law ) and Mansingh ( maternal uncle). Jahangir defeated Khusro at Bhairawal near Jalandhar and imprisoned him along with Abdul Aziz Hussain Beg. Khusro was blinded and later killed (1622). Hussain Beg and Amar Singh were executed. Guru Arjun Dev was asked to explain why he supported the prince. The fifth Guru replied that he blessed the grandson of his friend Akbar and in no way interfered in internal political affairs of Mughals. Guru was crucified.

 

Jahangir inherited Rajput policy of his father. They continued to be appointed at high mansabs. He gave mansab of 5000 zat and above to five Rajput rulers of Marwar, Amber, Bikaner and Mewar. He began a new tradition of accepting homage from son or brother of a ruler and not insisted on personal appearance as was done by Akbar.

 

In 1613, fifth military expedition to Mewar was led by Prince Khurram and Jahangir himself. Khurramcut all the lines of supply and communication to Mewar and forced its ruler Amar Singh to sign treaty of Mewar in 1615.

In his court came the agent of company Hawkins, and direct representative of British emperor James I, Sir Thomas Roe. Jahangir celebrated Rakshabandhan in 1612 for the first time. He wrote his autobiography Tujuk – I – Jahangiri.

 

 

Deccan Campaign

 

Akbar couldn’t annex Ahmadnagar completely; therefore, Jahangir was determined to annex it which was governed by Malik Amber. Malik Amber was a brilliant prime minister of Abyssinian origin in the court of Nizam Shahi dynasty. It was fourth expedition in 1615, led by Khurram, succeeded in forcing Malik Amber to sue for peace. He surrendered the forts of Ahmadnagar and Balaghat along with indemnity of 10 lakh rupees. Jahangir gave the title of Shahjahan to Khurram with 30000 zat and 17000 Sawar. Later, Malik Amber succeeded in capturing all his lost territories.

 

North – West

 

Jahangir occupied Kangra fort in 1620. The expedition to Kangra was led by prince Khurram and Raja Vikramajeet. It was a bone of contention between Mughals and Iranians for a long time. Iranian Emperor, Shah Abbas taking advantage of internal dissensions of Mughals occupied Kandhar in June 1622. It is noteworthy that Jahangir had ordered Shahjahan to move to Kandhar, but Shahjahan decided to stick to the capital to deal with political conspiracies. As a result Mughal lost Kandhar.

 

 

SHAHJAHAN (1627 – 1658)

 

Shahjahan was born in Lahore in 1592. His mother was Jodha Bai or Jagat Gosain daughter of Rajput ruler of Jodhpur, Udai Singh. His name was Khurram. He was the youngest prince to be appointed as the governor of Deccan at 15 years. In 1612, he got married to Arjumand Bano Begum, daughter of Asaf Khan. She was given the title of Mumtaz Mahal and Mallika – I – Zamani. She died while giving birth to their child and Shahjahan constructed Tajmahal in her memory.

 

His first expedition was against Khan Jahan Lodi, governor of Deccan who had declared himself independent ruler of Deccan taking advantage of unit war at the court. Shahjahan sent an expedition under Asaf Khan. He was defeated, pardoned and asked to stay in royal court. There too, he indulged in conspiracies against Shahjahan and he finally had to lose his life in 1631.

 

Revolt of Jujhar Singh Bundela. He was the son of Bir Singh Bundela who had murdered Abul Fazl in 1602 on the instigation of Jahangir. Taking advantage of war at court he had declared himself independent ruler of Bundelkhand. In 1628, he was defeated by Mughal forces, pardoned and gratned mansab of 2000 zat and Sawar. In 1634 – 35, Jujhar annexed Chouragarh, the capital of Gondwana. When he was asked to declare annexation in the name of Emperor he declined.

 

Shahjahan sent Aurangzeb with huge army who occupied Orcha, destroyed temples, killed Jujhar, and converted his sons to Islam. Devi Singh was appointed as ruler of Orcha. Later, Champat Rai and Chhatrasal Bundela continued struggle against Mughal authority.

 

Revolt of Portuguese

 

The Portuguese had established their control over Satgaon through a ‘Shahi Firman’. They gradually strengthened their position and began to misuse their authority which caused losses to Mughal Emperor. They were also into slave trade. Shahjahan orderd Qasim Khan in 1632 drove Portuguese out of Hughli.

 

Revolt of Ahoms

 

Ahom kings were giving shelter and support to Cooch Behar rebels and overlooked the request of Mughal Emperor not to do so. In 1636 the Ahom king was defeated and Guwahati came under Mughal king along with Kamrup. Mughals recognized Ahoms as independent rulers.

 

Deccan Campaign

 

Deccan policy of Shahjahan was guided by imperialistic conditions. The conditions in South were also favourable to Mughal expansion.

 

Ahmadnagar

 

Malik Amber had died in 1626 and was succeeded by his son Fateh Khan as Prime Minister of Nizamshahi ruler Murtuza Khan. On instigation of Mahabat Khan, Mughal governor of Deccan, he got Murtza Khan murdered and appointed Hussain shah as ruler. Mahabat Khan was determined to annex Ahmadnagar and asked Fateh Khan to surrender minor ruler to Mughals. In this he was promised the governorship of Gujarat and lakh rupees.

 

In 1633, Fateh Khan handed his mother to Mughals and Ahmadnagar was partially annexed and in 1636 it was completely annexed.

 

Golconda

 

Abdullah Shah of Golconda accepted Shahjahan’s suzerainty and signed treaty of Golkunda in 1635. He agreed to pay annual tribute of Rs. 96 lakh, accepted Shahjahan as overload and struck coins and also read Khutba in Shahjahan’s name. This treaty gave pleace for 20 years.

 

Bijapur

 

In 1631 Asaf Khan was entrusted with the task of assuming Bijapur in which he failed due to famine. In 1635, Ali Adil Shah II of Bijapur was defeated and treaty of Bijapur was signed in 1630. He agreed to pay annual tribute of Rs. 20 lakh. He accepted Shahjahan as overload. He struck coins and read Khutba in name of Shahjahan.

 

North West Policy

 

In 1626, the Mughals lost Kandhar but Shahjahan attempted to recover it from the Shah of Persia.

 

The Persian army regained Kandhar in February 1649. The Mughals made two attempts to capture it under Aurangzeb respectively in 1649 and 1652 A.D. but in vain. The third campaign was sent under Dara in 1653, but this attempt was an abortive step as about 12 crore amount was lost.

 

Shahjahan was second Indian ruler to invade central Asia. He got opportunity when war broke out between Nazir Muhammad Khan, ruler of Balkh, Badakshan, Bokhara and his son Abdul Aziz. Nazir requested Shahjahan for military assistance. He immediately sent assistance led by Prince Murad and Ali Mardan. They captured Balkh and Badakshan. However, the retreat of Mughal army became a total rout, since army was attacked by Hazara tribes. Five lakh Mughals were killed. It cost Mughal 4 crore and in turn they got only 22 lakh for one year. It also exposed the weakness of Mughal army to the outside world.

 

War of Succession

 

In 1657, Shahjahan fell ill and this led to the war of succession. The eldest son Dara Shikoh, Governor of Punjab and Multan, Shuja was the Governor of Bengal, Aurangzeb was the Governor of Deccan, and Murad was the Governor of Gujarat. Both Murad and Shuja declared themselves as Mughal Emperor, struck coins and read Khutba in their names. Aurangzeb proceeded cautiously. He kept in touch with the Mughal court and entered into agreement with Murad. He offered him Governorship of Punjab, Gujarat, Deccan and Multan which he accepted.

Battle of Bahadurgarh

 

Fought between Shuja and Dara in February 1658, Shuja was defeated.

 

Battle of Dharmat

 

Fought between combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad and forces of Dara, led by Raja Jaswant Singh (ruler of Marwar) and Qasim Khan. Dara was defeated.

 

Battle of Samugarh

 

In May 1658, Shahjahan recovered and impressed his intention to lead Mughal forces against Aurangzeb. Dara because of affection towards father himself led the forces, many of the Mughal commanders seeing he alive would have turned loyalty in favour of the Emperor. On 29 May 1658, one of the most decisive battle in history of India started in which Dara had clear edge but he committed blunder. Aurangzeb emerged victorious. He entered fort of Agra on 5^th June 1658. Jahanara, eldest daughter of Shahjahan tried of reconciliation between father and son, but failed. Shahjahan was put into prison in front of Agra. On 27^th January 1666 Shahjahan died as he was denied of even pure drinking water

 

Battle of Khanjawa

 

In January 1659, between Aurangzeb and Shuja near Allahabad, Shuja was defeated and fled towards Arakan and died.

 

Battle of Devral

 

In April 1659 near Ajmer between Aurangzeb and Dara. Dara was finally defeated and brought to Delhi and was executed by an order of a court and his dead body was paraded on the street of Delhi. The eyewitness of this episode was Barniyar.

 

 

AURANGZEB (1658 – 1707)

 

Aurangzeb was third son of his parents born in 1618 in Ujjain. His mother was Mumtaz, who died early and he was brought up by NoorJahan. In 1637, he got married to Dilras Bano Begum, a princess of Iran. His first experience with real life battle field was against Jujhar Singh of Orchha. In this very first battle he showed religious orthodoxy by breking some Hindu temple. He was very talented, wise and diplomatic which earned him a mansab of 10,000 zat and 400 Sawar, at a young age of 25 in 1643. He assumed governorship of Deccan twice (1636 – 1644 and 1652 – 1658). He was also made the governor of Gujarat, Multan and Sindh in 1645.

 

After the battle of Samugarh on 29 May 1658, Aurangzeb emerged victorious. He underwent coronation ceremony first time on 31^st July 1658. In September 1658 Shahjahan was imprisoned. Battle of Khajwaha, on January 1659, Shuja was defeated and fled to Arakan hills in Burma. There he was killed by Magh tribe. After the defeat Dara fled to Marwar but by that time, Aurangzeb had own over Jaswant Singh, who deserted Dara. He was finally defeated in the Battle of Deorai in April 1659.

 

Aurangzeb underwent coronation ceremony second time in June 1659 in Delhi after the battles of Khajwa and Devrai. He assumed the title of Abul – Muzaffar Muhiuddin – Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir.

 

Murad was invited in a royal reception in 1661 in Gwalior, where he was poisoned to death. Suleiman, eldest son of Dara was also poisoned to death in 1662. Only fortunate survivor was Sipher, youngest son of Dara. He was released and married to Aurangzeb’s daughter Zeb – un – Nissa, a great Persian poetress who wrote “Diwan – e – Maqfi”.

 

Consolidation and Campaigns

 

Bengal and North East

 

Within one year, Mir Jumla restored Mughal authority in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, whereafter he decided to “wage a holy war with the infidels of Assam”. Assisted by a well equipped army, he marched to Cooch Bihar and annexed the kingdom changing its name Alamgir Nagar. The Raja’s son, who converted to Islam, joined the Mughals. The Mughal army then marched towards Kamarupa and despite Ahom resistance re – occupied Gauhati and Garghaon. Finally in 1663 the Ahoms agreed to a settlement whereby the Ahom ruler became a Mughal vassal, agreed to send a daughter in marriage to the Mughal court and cede considerable territory. But after Mir Jumla’s death in 1663, successive Mughal governors were unable to consolidate Mughal hold on the Brahmaputra valley, and both Guahati and Kamarupa were lost to the empire.

 

Foreign Powers

 

Aurangzeb was the first Mughal Emperor who led expedition against Britishers. In 1686, Britishers became very aggressive with the advent of Childe brothers, Johan childe and Joshila Childe, who assumed the charge of company in Bengal. They captured Mughal ships going to Mecca for Hajj in Hooghly. Aurangzeb ordered Shaista Khan to capture all British possessions in Bengal. He also instructed all provincial governors to capture British possessions in India including their factories at Surat. The company begged pardon and the matter was reconciled. Childe brothers were recalled and a war indemnity of 2 lakh rupees was paid.

 

The tension between the Mughals and the East India Company rose to an all time high, when pirates invaded Ganj – I – Sawai, the largest vessel in Surat mercantile fleet and harassed pilgrims for which the Mughals held the company responsible. The British and Dutch companies promised to end the menace.

 

Deccan

Aurangzeb was an imperialist ruler and was a religious orthodox and could not tolerate existence of independent Shia kingdoms of Deccan which were economically very prosperous. Moreover, they assisted the Marathas against the Mughals. In 1665, Raja Jai Singh was given the charge of the campaign of Deccan who forced Shivaji to sign the treaty of Purandar, and then he led campaign against Ali Adil Shah II of Bijapur who followed gurilla tactics of warfare.

 

Bijapur

 

In 1679, Daler Khan led a campaign against Bijapur, but this was also a failure. In 1683, Aurangzeb entrusted campaign to Prince Muazzam and Prince Azam, but that too failed. In 1685 Aurangzeb himself led the campaign. Ali Adil Shah II died in that year and was succeeded by his incompetent son Sikandar Shah. In 1686, he surrendered to Mughal forces and Bijapur was annexed.

 

Golconda

 

In Golconda, Abdullah Shah had died and his incompetent son Abul Hassan entrusted government affairs to two of his Hindu ministers – Akana and Madana. This was not to the liking of Aurangzeb. He sent his arm to Golconda led by Prince Muazzam and Prince Azam. This forced Abul Hassan to sign the treaty of Hyderabad in 1685. However, Aurangzeb was determined to annex Golconda, since the days of his governorship of Deccan. Finally, his dream came true in 1687 and Abul Hassan, was imprisoned in the fort of Daulatabad.

 

Maratha Rebellion

 

Aurangzeb failed to solve the problem of Marathas, nor could he conclude any workable agreement with them. After the death of Shivaji in 1680, Aurangzeb succeeded to curtail Maratha power for some time. Shambhaji was killed in 1689. His minor son Sahu was taken into Mughal captivity. Raja ram, the younger brother of Shambhaji, was crowned as Maratha king, who took shelter in Jinji and continued to fight against the Mughals. Jinji was captured in 1698 but Raja ram escaped. Marathas grew in strength and recaptured many forts.

 

From 1700 to 1705, the Marathas went on seizing one fort after another. The Mughals suffered tremendous losses, forcing Aurangzeb to open negotiations with the Marathas. However, he went back on his promise to release Sahu, the son of Shambhaji. By 1706, Aurangzeb was convinced that his efforts to capture Marathas were futile and retreated back to Aurangzeb in 1707.

 

North – West

 

During the reign of Aurangzeb, we see a new stirring among the Pathans. In 1667, Bhagu, the leader of the Yusufazi tribe, proclaimed as king and a person named Muhammad Shah, who claimed descent from an ancient royal lineage, proclaimed himself his wazir. A religious revivalist movement called the Raushanai, which emphasized a strict ethical life and devotion to a chosen Pir had provided an intellectual and moral background to the movement. Gradually, Bhagu’s movement spread till his followers started ravaging and plundering. After a series of hard fought battles, the Afghan resistance was broken. But to watch over them, in 1671 Maharaja Jaswant Singh, the ruler of Marwar, was appointed as Thanedar of Jamrud.

 

There was a second Afghan uprising in 1672. The leader of the opposition this time was the Afridi leader, Akmal Khan, who proclaimed himself king and read Khutba and struck Sikka in his name. He declared war against the Mughals and summoned all the Afghans to join him. At last, in the middle of 1674, Aurangzeb himself went to Peshawar and remained in the neighbourhood till the end of 1675. By force and diplomacy, the Afghan united front was broken and peace was slowly restored.

 

Internal Revolts

 

Rebellion of Gokla

 

Early in 1667, the Jats of the Mathura region rose in rebellion under the leadership of Gokla, a small zamindar. In view of the growing plundering activities of the Jats, towards the end of the years, Aurangzeb moved from Delhi to Agra. In a hard fought battle, Gokla was defeated and captured. He was killed brutally, his son converted to Islam, and the daughter married to one of the emperor’s slave of high rank.

 

Satnami Revolt

 

In 1672, there was another armed conflict between the peasants and the Mughal state at Narnaul, not for from Mathura. This time the conflict was with a religious body called Satnamis. The Satnamis were a sect of Bairagis who had their own scriptures. They had an attitude of sympathy with the poor, and hostility towards authority and wealth. Hence, their appeal lay mainly with the lower classes. Starting from a clash with a local official, it soon assumed the character of an open rebellion. Aurangzeb sent a large force of 10,000 including artillery. The rebels fought well but could not prevail against such a large, well organized force.

 

Jat Uprising

 

In course of time, Raja ram organized the Jats and imparted them military training. This was combined with the plundering of the important royal highway linking Agra to Burhanpur and Ajmer. Aurangzeb approached Raja Bishan Singh, the Kachhwaha ruler to crush the uprising. Bishan Singh was appointed Faujdar of Mathura and the entire area was granted to him in Zamindari. The Jats put up stiff resistance, but by 1691, Rajasthan and his successor, Churaman were compelled to submit. However, unrest among the Jats peasants continued and their plundering activities made the Delhi – Agra road Jat principality in the area.

 

Rajput Rebellion

 

Jaswant Singh Rathore, the Raja of Marwar died in Afghanistan in December 1678. Aurangzeb ordered that the whole of Marwar be resumed as the crown land. Two queens of Jaswant Singh gave birth to two sons. The elder was Ajit Singh and Rathors demanded that he be recognized as Raja. Aurangzeb offered to grant him the title when he assumed adulthood, on condition that he is raised as a Muslim. Rajputs rejected the offer, following which Aurangzeb sent his troops to arrest Ajit Singh and his mothers. Rajputs gets united under the able leadership of Durgadas Rathore and rebelled against Mughal authority.

 

Rajput rebellion became very powerful when Mewar ruler Raj Singh decided to put his weight behind Ajit Singh. After the death of Raj Singh, Aurangzeb succeeded in negotiating peace with Jai Singh. The rebellion weakened, but continued till the death of Aurangzeb and ended only in 1709, when Bahadur shah accepted Ajit Singh as the ruler.

 

Religious Policy

 

Aurangzeb was a Sunni orthodox Muslim who wanted to convert India from Dar – ul – harb to Dar – ul – Islam. His religious policy was a departure from the policy of tolerance and universal peace followed by Akbar. Aurangzeb was determined to cast his regime in a strictly Islamic mould. In 1659, after his second coronation, he banned the celebration of Nauroz, the Persian New Year, replaced the solar calendar by the Iunar Hjra, dismissed court musicians and royal painters, banned the drinking of wine and the use of opium; and appointed Muhtasibs (court censors)from among the Ulema to enforce Sharia injunctions.

 

Between 1659 and 1670, the Emperor issued several ordinances, which intensified the trends towards Islamisation. In 1665, the Emperor ordered Muslims to pay an internal customs duty of 2.5 percent as against 5 percent for Hindus. Aurangzeb ordered all Hindus to be expelled from revenue department in 1671. Akbar’s practice of giving darshan to his subjects from a balcony known as Jharokha – darshan was abandoned, as was the ceremony of weighing the Emperor on his birthday. The pilgrimage tax levied on Hindus traveling to their teerthas, abolished by Akbar, was reinstated in 1674. In 1669, the Emperor ordered the destruction of all temples recently built or repaired. Temples of Mathura and Benaras became special targets of attack. In 1679 came the Emperor’s most contentious decision, the re – imposition of the discriminatory jiziya tax on Hindus.

 

In the second phase Aurangzeb tried to project himself as the asylum of Muslims. It was during this period that conversion of individuals often for petty gains was promoted. However, by these means Aurangzeb could neither detach the Deccani rulers from their alliance with the Marathas, nor were the theological elements even in the camp were impressed.

 

After Bijapur and Golconda Aurangzeb tried to win over the powerful Rajas, Nayaks and Deshmukhs of Telangana and Karnataka. This led to modification of this policy of destroying even old standing temples as a reprisal for political opposition. Aurangzeb was unrelenting in his opposition in giving remission in Jaziya. Finally in 1704, he suspended it for the duration of the war in the south only.

 

Despite the fact that Aurangzeb favoured the followers of his faith only, the number of Hindus in the nobility during the second half of his reign almost doubled forming about one – third of the total strength. He himself inducted large number of Marathas into the service. However, they were not given important commands or post, nor were made any attempts to establish friendly social relations with them on the model of the Rajputs.

 

Reasons for Decline

 

The expansion of the Mughal Empire reached its optimum point under the last Great Emperor and it was just like an inflated balloon. No welfare measures were adopted for the common people nor were the rebellions forces given kind treatment from the central authority. The policy of blood and sword was ultimate instrument for Aurangzeb. He was not in a mood to face personal liberty of any person and his words were laws. Thus the vastness of the empire only tended to weaken the centre in an era of undeveloped means of communications.

 

The efforts made by Aurangzeb to transform the state into an Islamic empire were resented by other powers of the land. His policy of religious bigotism provoked a general discontent in the country and the rebellions of the Sikhs, the Jats, the Bundellas, the Rajputs and the Marathas were, to some extent, reactions against the central authority.

 

It has also been presumed that an additional reason for Aurangzeb’s onslaught on the Shia Sultanates of Golconda and Bijapur was religious. The conquest of the Muslim kingdoms promoted the Marathas to emerge strongly on the forefront and the assassination of Shambhaji put the Mughals in great difficulties.

 

Aurangzeb’s policy of continuous war in Deccan and North West drained the resources of the empire. It also ruined the trade and commerce of the country. Several military commanders and apt soldiers lost their lives fighting against the enemies.

 

Aurangzeb was a man of jealous nature and he had no faith in anybody but himself. He put his sons and daughters in jails and did not allow anybody to develop in the second line. He, however, made his will in favour of the division of the empire among his sons, but it was too late to work upon it.

 

In spite of many policies of harmful nature, the Mughal administration was still quite efficient and the army strong at the time of Aurangzeb’s death in 1707. The dynasty still commanded respect in the whole country. But all his successors were weaklings who were unable to meet the challenges from within and outside.

 

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

 

Babur and Humayun got no time to organize the administration of the state. Akbar finally took the task to organize the administration. The system of administration which Akbar, evolved did not mark a very sharp break from the earlier Delhi sultanate, rather it was further development of the earlier system. The Mughal administration was an amalgam of both central Asian and Timurid traditions in Indian setting.

 

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

 

Akbar organized the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power between various departments, and of checks and balances. The form of Mughal government was despotic monarchy. The king (Badshah) was the fountain head of all powers, legislative, executive, military, and judiciary and civil. The king was understood to be shadow of God on the Earth. Akbar asserted that Monarchy was a ‘divine gift’.

 

Bairam Khan was the wakil (deputy of the king) of Akbar; he controlled both revenue and military affairs. After Bairam’s fall the wakil was striped of all powers and became largely decorative. In practice, it was the wazir, the head of the revenue department, who was next to Emperor. Though his power was somewhat curtailed by distributing it among four ministers – Diwan, Mir Bakshi, Mir Saman and Sadr.

 

Diwan

 

He was the minister of finances. His responsibilities were three fold, executive, revenue and finance. He held the charge of the departments like Diwan – I – Khalsa (for centrally administered land), Diwan – I – Tan (for salaries), Mushrif (account) and Mustaufi (auditor).

 

Mir Bakshi

 

He was the head of the military department similar to that of Aziz – I – Mamalik under ‘Delhi Sultanate’. He was the paymaster of imperial army. Later on with the introduction of Mansabdari system, his duties and powers somewhat changed.

 

Mir Saman or Khan Saman

 

He was in charge of the royal household like buildings, Karkhana, roads, gardens, etc.

 

Sadr – us – Sadr

 

He was in charge of religious matters, religious endowments and charities. He was also the head of the judicial department. His powers were curtailed during Akbar’s reign. Some time the same person held the post of Qazi and Sadr.

 

Chief Qazi

 

He was the head of the judiciary after king.

 

Barids

 

They were intelligence officers.

 

Besides the above mentioned ministers who constituted the main pillars of the imperial government, a number of other high officials were appointed at center.

 

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

 

In 1580, the Mughal Empire was divided into 12 subas (provinces). Later after the expansion of the empire into Deccan, 3 more subas were formed during the reign of Akbar. During the reign of Akbar. During Jahangir’s reign the number of Subas rose to 17, under Shah Jahan it raised to 22 and under Aurangzeb to 21.

 

The Head of province (Governor) was known as Subedar, Sipahsalar or Nazim, provincial Diwan acted as a check on the Subedar and was directly responsible to the central Diwan, so was the case of provincial Bakshi. The provincial administration of the Mughals was an exact miniature of the imperial government.

 

District or Sarkar

 

Fauzdar

 

He was the administrative head of the Sarkar.

 

Amil or Amalguzar

 

His duties were collecting revenue and patrolling the roads. He had the same duties in the Sarkar, as those of his superiors, Diwan in the province.

 

Kotwal

 

His duty was to maintain law and order in Sarkar besides, trial of criminal case and regulation of price.

 

Pargana

 

Siqdar

 

He was the administrative head of the Pargana and combined in himself the duties of Fauzdar and Kotwal.

 

Amin and Qanungo

 

They were revenue officials.

 

Revenue Administration

 

In the Nineteenth year of his reign (1574) Akbar appointed officials called amil (karoris) who were placed in charge of land which could yield a crore of dams. In the same year, a new Jarib or measurement rod consisting of Bamboos joined by iron rings was introduced for the measurement of land.

 

In 1580, Akbar instituted a new system i.e. Dashala system. Under this the average produce of different crops as well as the average price prevailing over the last 10 years was calculated. One third of the average produce was the state share, which was however stated in cash. The credit for developing this system i.e. Ain – I – Dashala goes to Raja Todar Mal. For the measurement of land ‘Bigha’ was adopted as standard unit. A new gaz or yard, “gaz – I – Ilahi” was introduced.

 

After the assessment of revenue in kind, it was covered into cash with the help of price schedules (Dastur – ul – amal) prepared at regional level in respect of various crops. A number of other systems of assessment were also followed under Akbar. The most common was batai or ghallabakshi (crop sharing)

 

Zabti System

 

Based on the measurement and assessment of land.

 

Ghallabakshi or Batai

 

It was oldest and most common; produce was divided between the state and the peasants in a fixed proportion.

 

Kankut System

 

Instead of actually dividing the grain (Kan) an estimate (kut) was made on the basis of an actual inspection of the crop on sopt.

 

The Amil was the advance money by way of loans (taccavi) to the peasants for seeds, implements etc in time of need.

 

MILITARY ADMINISTRATION

 

The Mughal army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery, elephants and camels. There was no navy in the modern sense except small fleets of boats, under amir – ul – bahr. The organization of best cavalry force in Asia was greatest achievement of Akbar and it was the backbone of Mughal Empire. The cavalry was considered the ‘flower of the army’.

 

LATER MUGHALS

 

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a war of succession amongst his three surviving sons, Muazzam, the governor of Kabul, Azam, the governor of Gujarat and Kambaksh, the governor of Bijapur. Muazzam defeated both Azam at Jajua and Kambaksh near Hyderabad and ascended the Mughal throne with the name of Bahadur Shah. He was also known as Shah Alam I.

 

Bahadur Shah (1707 – 1772)

 

Prince Muazzam emerged, victorious in the war of succession and ascended the throne with the name of Bahadur Shah at the age of 67. He adopted a more tolerant attitude towards Hindus. The Jizyah was withdrawn and independence of Mewar and Marwar was acknowledged. He released Shahu. He gave a high Mansab to Guru Govind Singh. After the death of Guru Govind Singh, Sikhs rebelled under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. During the course of a campaign against Banda he died in 1712. There was deterioration in the field of administration during his reign. The Mughal historian Khafi Khan gives him the title of “Shah – I – bekhabar”.

 

With the death of Bahadur Shah a new element entered Mughal politics and the war of succession, previously, the contest for power was between the royal princes, the nobles had merely backed and sided with them. Now they became direct aspirants to the throne and began using the princes as pawns to capture authoritarian positions.

Jahandar Shah (1712 – 1713)

 

Jahandar Shah won the war of succession due to the support of Zulfiqar Khan, the most powerful Iranian noble of the time. Jahandar Shah was the first puppet ruler in Mughal India. The administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfiqar Khan. He was a clever man and advocated a friendly policy towards Rajputs, Marathas and Hindu chieftains not only to strengthen his own position but to ensure the survival of the Empire. He tried to improve the finance of the Empire by checking the rackless growth of Jagir and offices and forced the Mansabdars to maintain their official quota of troops. But he also introduced the evil practice of revenue farming or ijarah. Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of Mirza Raja Sawai and Ajit Singh was awarded the title of Maharaja. Shahu was granted the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of Deccan. Jahandar Shah was defeated at Agra in 1713 by Farrukh Siyar.

 

Farrukh Siyar (1713 – 1719)

 

He had succeeded to the throne with the help of Saiyed Brothers. To repay that obligation, he appointed Saiyed Abdullah Khan as wazir and his younger brother Hussain Ali Khan as Mir Bakshi. Zulfiqar Khan was murdered. Banda Bahadur, the Sikh leader was executed at Delhi. Hussain Ali made a settlement with Balaji Vishwanath by which he made many concessions to the Marathas in return of their active armed assistance in the struggle for supremacy going on in Delhi. In 1719, Saiyed brother with the help of Marathas troops killed Farrukh Siyar.

 

Saiyed Brothers abolished Jizyah completely and the pilgrim tax was also abolished from a number of places.

 

After Farrukh Siyar, Saiyed Brothers placed Rafi – ud – Darjat on the throne, but he died of consumption within four months. Then Rafi – ud – Daula was placed on the throne with the title of Shahjahan II by Saiyed Brothers.

 

Muhammad Shah (1719 – 1748)

 

Muhammad Shah (Roshan Akhtar) also ascended the throne with the help of Saiyed brothers. A conspiracy was hatched by the nobles against the Saiyed Brothers, who were murdered by the nobles in 1720.

 

Nizam – ul – Mulk was appointed the wazir of the Empire. But instead of supporting Nizam, the Emperor suspected his own ministers. So, Nizam chose to pursue his own ambitions.

 

Nizam – ul – Mulk set up an autonomous state in Deccan. Saadat Khan carved out a state for himself in Avadh while Murshid Quil Khan became virtually independent in Bengal. Nadir Shah Abdali raided the kingdom for the first time during his reign. His addiction to wine and women got him the nick name “Rangila”. He loved dancing and was an expert Kathak dancer.

 

Ahmad Shah (1748 – 84)

 

He was born to Muhammad Shah through a dancing girl Udham Bai. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi many times and Punjab and Multan were ceded to them. The Maratha snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand. His wazir, Imad – ul – Mulk, blinded him and placed Alamgir II on the throne. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi. He was murdered by his wazir Imad – ul – Mulk.

 

Shah Alam II (1759 – 1806)

 

Prince Ali Gauhar took the title of Shah Alam II. He ceowned himself under Sujauddaulah’s protection at Gothauli in Bihar. Another prince Shahjahan III was placed on the throne of Delhi. Shah Alam had to remain in exile for twelve years. He was defeated by British in 1764 at the battle of Buxar and lived for several years at Allahabad as a pentioner of the East India Company. By the Treaty of Allahabad, the Emperor received the territories of Allahabad and Kara and an annual tribute of 26 lakhs from Bengal. By a firman, the Emperor confirmed the English gains and granted them Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In 1803, the English captured Delhi. Shah Alam died in 1806 as a prisoner of British.

 

Akbar II (1806 – 1837)

 

During his reign Raja Ram Mohan Roy went to England. He gave him the title of Raja.

 

Bahadur Shah II (1837 – 1862)

 

He was the last Mughal Emperor. Lord Dalhousie agreed to recognize Mirza Fakhruddin as heir if they left the Delhi fort and moved to Qutub Minar area. Lord Canning decided to drop the title of king. After Revolt of 1857, Bahadur Shah was deported to Rangoon in Burma and he died there. He used to write Shair in pen – name of Jafar.

 

 

MANSABDARI SYSTEM

 

To organized nobility as well as his army Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in 1577. it was based on the Mongol’s system of decimal organization of army. In its broad aspect, the mansab or rank awarded to an individual fixed both his status in the official hierarchy as well as his salary. The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles. Mansab above 5000 was reserved for princess of royal blood. The holder could be given any administrative or military responsibilities. Mirza Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh were honoured with the rank of 7000 each. The mansabdar who received pay in cash were known as naqdi and those paid through assignments of Jagirs were called Jagirdars.

 

In the dual zat and Sawar system, zat indicate the personal pay and the status of a noble, and the sawar rank, the actual number of horseman he was expected to maintain. The mansab was not hereditary, it was based on merit. The important defect of this system was that it did not give birth to a national army due to non – regimentation of the army.

 

Jahangir introduced the du – asph – siaspah (2 – 3 horses) rank, literally meaning trooper having 2 or 3 horses and hence related to the sawar rank. Shahjahan introduced month scale, i.e. the salary of the mansabdars were put on month scale.

 

By 1595, the number of mansabdars during the reign of Akbar was 180, but towards the close of the Aurangzeb’s reign their number rose to 14,449, leading to the complaints that no jagirs were left for being granted to them. This led to jagirdari and agranian crisis which in trun, brought about the collapse of the mansabdari system after Aurangzeb.

 

 

 

 

SUR EMPIRE

                                                                                 (1540 – 1556)

 

 

Khain – I – Azam Ahmad Khan Sarangkhani who appointed Hasan Sur (father of Farid) as the Iqtadar of Sahasram and Khawaspur – Tanda Parganas. This gave Farid first hand experience of managing affairs at the pargana and village level. He was strict in collecting the dues, but generous in levying them. Farid went to the service of Bahar Khan Lohani, the governor of south Bihar, who gave him the title of Sher Khan because he had killed a tiger without sword. He was also appointed the deputy governor of Bihar. Bahar Khan Lohani died very soon and Sher Khan got the support of his widow Dudu Begum became the regent of her minor son Jalal Khan. Afghans were defeated at the battle of Ghagra in May 1529. Many of them including Sher Khan accepted the suzerainty of Babur. After some time Dudu Begum died and the affairs of the empire came in the hands of Sher Khan. He recruited his own men in his army and strengthened his position in the politics of Bihar. Now Sher Khan was the defacto ruler of South Bihar. But he did not adopt any royal title and performed his duties under the general title of Hazrat – e – Ala.

 

After the victory of the battle of Chausa, Sher Khan organized his coronation ceremony and adopted the title of Sher Shah. He also issued coins and Khutba was read in his name. The whole area from Bengal to Benaras was under the roof of his empire. Humayun organized his soldiers in hurry and took the help of his brothers Askari and Hindal. Sher Shah once again waited for the rainy season. Two armies met at Kannauj but the fortune favoured Sher Shah and Humayun fled for life. Sher Shah entered Delhi and formally crowned himself as the king of Hindustan. Sher Shah invaded Malwa in 1542and used the opportunity to oust the powerful Rajput chief Puranmal from Chanderi.

 

Maldeo was the ruler of Marwar in Rajasthan who followed an expansionist policy and reached Jhajjar, only 30 miles from Delhi. Early in 1543, Sher Shah advanced from Agra with an army of 80,000horses, and a strong pack of artillery. While Maldeo retreated with the bulk of his army, Sher Shah had little difficulty in overcoming the small gallant band of Rajputs. Maldeo took shelter in the fort of Siwan on the border of Gujarat. But Jodhpur and Ajmer fell to the Afghans. After establishing his outposts there, Sher Shah turned to Mewar where minor king Uday Singh was the ruler after Rana of Mewar purchased peace by surrendering Chittor, thus Sher Shah became the master of all Rajasthan.

 

After Rajasthan Sher Shah turned to the conquest of Bhata (Rewa) in Bundelkhand. This was the last campaign of his life. While besieging its fort, Kalinjar, Sher Shah in 1545 got burns when a rocket rebounded from the wall and set fire to a bundle of rockets where he was standing. But he had the satisfaction of seeing the surrender of the fort before he died on 22 May, 1545 A.D.

 

 

Ishlam Shah (1545 – 53 A.D.)

 

Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Ishlam shah. Ishlam Shah killed Chandella ruler Kirat Singh of Kalinjar and his 70 followers and reached Agra. He got success to crush the steps of his elder brother Adil Khan who fled towards Bayana. Humayun made unsuccessful attempts to cross the Indus River but returned to Kabul in 1553 A.D. he issued an 80 page royal regulation which was taken to every district and pargana. He did not feel any necessity to send his firmans to Qazis or Muftis whether those were Islam friendly or not.

 

Mubariz Khan adopted the title of Adil Shah. His Hindu minister Hemu became powerful who adopted the title of Vikramaditya. The Sur Empire was virtually divided into four parts among close relatives of Sher Shah:

 

a)       Punjab under Sikandar Shah or Ahmad Khan Sur

b)       Delhi and Agra under Ibrahim Shah Sur

c)       Agra to Bihar region under Adil Shah Sur

d)       Bengal under Muhammad Khan Sur

 

All of them fought against each other which paved the way back to India for Humayun. The challenge of Hemu was subdued at the second Battle of Panipat in 1556 A.D. by Akbar and Bairam Khan.

 

Sur Administration

 

Sher shah established a highly centralized government. His administrative works were roughly divided into various departments called Diwans, each headed by a separate minister. For administrative conveniences he divided the whole empire into 47 sarkars (district) which were further sub divided into several parganas (sub district). Village was the lowest unit of administration. Sher Shah made the local village headman (Muqaddams) and zamindars responsible for local crime.

 

For the convenience of travelers, Sher Shah built many sarai (inn) at a distance of every two Kos (about 8 km). These sarais were also used as dak – chowki. The roads and sarais of Sher Shah have been called the ‘arteries of the empire’. He built four roads; most famous was the Grand trunk road from Sonargaon (Bengal) to attack.

 

Sher shah improved the revenue system by adopting zabti – I – har – sala (assessment every year) method of revenue collection. Land was measured using the ‘gaz – I – Sikandari’ and a Jarib of rope was the standard unit of measurement. He introduced two documents called Patta (the amount each peasant had to pay) and Qabuliyat (deed of agreement). Sher Shah was the first ruler to introduce silver rupiya (Rupee – one rupiya was equal to 64 dams) and gold coin ashrafi.

 

The Shiqdar was incharge of the pargana. His chief function was to collect the revenue at pargana level. He was frequently transferred under Sher Shah. He was assisted by two Karkuns (clerks) who kept the records both in Hindi and Persian. The fotedar was entrusted with the treasury of the pargana. The number of parganas formed a Sarkar headed by Shiqdar – I – Shiqdaram. He was the supervisor and executive officer over the shiqdars of all the parganas in a Sarkar (Shiq). The munsif – I – munsifan performed the duties of amil. There were 66 Sarkars (Shiqs) in Sher Shah Empire.

 

Civil cases of the Muslims were taken care of by the qazi, while the criminal cases were tried by the shiqdar. The last responsibility for detecting crimes rested with muqaddams. If the muqaddam of the village, where the crime was committed, failed to capture the culprit, he was liable to severe punishment.

 

He introduced the branding system (dagh) of the horses and descriptive rolls (chehra) which had fallen into disuse. He imposed it very harshly. Descriptive rolls of even sweepers and female slaves in the palace were recorded.

 

The most striking contribution of Sher Shah was his reform of the revenue system. Sher Shah wanted that the assessment of land revenue should not be based on crop sharing or estimation, nor should the village head – men and zamindars be allowed to pass their burden on to the shoulders of the weaker sections. Under Sher Shah, lands were divided into three categories good, bad and middling and the average yield computed. One – third of the average yield was the share of the state. The peasants were given the option of paying in cash or king, though Sher Khan preferred cash.

 

 

 

 

RISE OF MARATHAS

 

 

Shivaji (1647 – 80)

 

Even before the rise of Shivaji, the Marathas occupied a privileged position in administration and military fields. Many Maratha Silahdars and Mansabdars were employed in the Bahmani kingdom and its successors namely:

a)       Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur

b)       Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar.

 

Politically speaking the ground for establishment of an independent Maratha state was prepared by the advancement of the Mughal army in the South.

 

Shivaji belonged to the Bhosle or Bhonsle clan of the Marathas. Shivaji’s father Shahji was a military commander under Nizam Shahi ruler of Ahmadnagar. The parganas of Poona and Supa were held by him at his personal jagir. After the fall of Ahmadnagar, he transferred his services to Bijapur in 1632 and carved out a big estate for himself in Mysore and Karnataka regions. Shivaji was born of his first wife Jija Bai in the hill fortress of Shivner, in the estate of Poona, in 1627. Jija Bai belonged to the ancient Yadava ruling house of Deogiri. Apart from Jija Bai, two other persons influenced  Shivaji’s early career and character very deeply were Dadaji Kondev, the manager of his father’s jagir, and Guru Ramdas, his spiritual teacher since his boyhood days. Dadaji who acted as his tutor and guardian, was a man of character and ability with intense love for his young ward, he gave him training in civil and military administration.

 

Shivaji began to take active part in the administration of the Poona jagir. In 1646, Shivaji started encroachments on the territories of the neighbouring Muslim states. Taking advantage of the illness of the Sultan of Bijapur; he took forced possession of the hill fort of Torna. Within the next two years, Shivaji laid his hands on Chakan, Kondana and Purandhar. In January 1656, Shivaji doubled his territorial possession and resources by the conquest of a Maratha estate of Javli from Chandra Rao more by securing the murder of the latter through treachery. It made him the master of the entire Maval country.

 

In 1653, he captured Kalyan, an important city and wealthy part of the Adilshahi’s on the west coast. From 1657 to 1660, Shivaji repeatedly attacked and plundered the Adilshahi territories. In 1660, Afzal Khan, a front rank noble and general of the Adilshahi kingdom, was entrusted with the command of an expedition against Shivaji. At the said meeting, when Afzal Khan embracing Shivaji attacked him with a dagger, the latter promptly killed him with tiger – claws (baghnakh).

 

In this struggle for Maratha Swaraj which Shivaji had launched, he had to face the challenge of Adil Shahi authority and the might of the Mughal Empire. For three years (1660 – 63), Shivaji was so hunted from all directions that he became a homeless wonderer. At this juncture, he launched a night attack at the well – guarded mansion of Shaista Khan who was wounded in the attack and whose son was killed. This incident gave a rude shock to the Mughal prestige in the Deccan, leading to the recall of Shaista Khan and the appointment of Aurangzeb’s son Muazzam as viceroy in the Deccan. The next blow to the Mughal Prestige in the Deccan was the sack of Surat by Shivaji in 1664, which was followed by plunder of Ahmadnagar.

 

In 1665, Aurangzeb entrusted the task of suppressing Shivaji, to Mirza Raja Jai Sing of Amber who opened the campaign with the siege of Purandhar. Driven to desperation after months of resistance, Shivaji negotiated for submission and treaty was concluded at Purandhar (1665), by which Shivaji was allowed to retain twelve of his forts, including Raigarh, on condition of obedience and service to the Mughals and surrender twenty three of his forts. After the treaty of Purandhar, Shivaji visit to the Mughal court at Agra, his confinement there and his great escape are well known facts of history.

 

In 1674, he arranged his grand coronation according to the Vedic rites at his capital Raigarh. On this occasion he announced the formation of his sovereign state. He also introduced a new era of his own, dating from his coronation. With all the splendour and demonstration of Shivaji’s coronation and the lofty title of full sovereignty assumed by him, his actual dominion was hardly more than two hundred miles in length and for less in breath.

 

Shivaji marched for his longest and last campaign in 1677, which took him to Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The objective of this campaign was the subjugation of Adil Shahi Kingdom of Bijapur, for which he entered into a secret pact with the Sultan of Golconda, through the good offices of Madanna and Akanna, the two Brahmin minister of Golconda. The Karnataka expedition proved to be Shivaji’s last great achievement.

 

Sambhaji (1680 – 89)

 

Shivaji died in April, 1680 without naming a successor. There was a dispute about succession between the two sons of Shivaji from his two different wives – Sambhaji and Raja Ram. Finally Sambhaji ascended the thrown after, deposing Raja Ram from the thrown on July 20, 1680. For more than a year afterwards, however, his position continued to be insecure. His character failed to inspire the loyalty of the old and trusted servants of the state. Distrust of the Maratha leaders led him to place his confidence in a Brahmin whom he invested with the Supreme control of the administration and conferred on him the title Kavi – Kalash.

 

Sambhaji proved an incapable ruler and poor diplomat. Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb took shelter with him in June, 1681 and stayed in Maharashtra for six years. Aurangzeb diverted his whole hearted attempt towards the Marathas whose lands were stormed by the Mughal troops from all sides. Sambhaji was surprised by a Mughal commander, Muqarrab Khan at Sangmeshwar and was taken prisoner with his notorious minister Kavi Kalash. They were brought to Aurangzeb’s military camp at Bahadurgarh and tortured to death in March, 1689.

 

Raja Ram (1689 – 1700)

 

On the expected and sad end of Sambhaji the Marathas raised Shivaji’s second son Raja Ram to the throne. Sambhaji’s widowed queen Yesu Bai instead of preferring the claim of her infant son Shahu to be the successor for her deceased husband. Immediately after the death of Sambhaji, the Mughal troops laid siege to Raigarh, the capital of the Maratha kingdom. On the advice of Yesu Bai, Raja Ram was immediately sent out of the fort to a place of safety at Vishalgarh, while the capital was defended heroically by her, under her won command. It fell to the Mughals on November 13, 1689 because of the treachery of Maratha officer. The entire family of Sambhaji, including Yesu Bai and her son Shahu fell into the hands of the Mughals and suffered in the jail of Aurangzeb for many years.

 

In 1698, Jinji, the new capital also fell to the Mughals after a long siege of eight months but before its fall, Raja Ram had escaped to Maharashtra. Raja Ram fell ill and died on March 12, 1700.

 

After the Raja Ram’s death, his minor son by his wife Tara Bai, named Shivaji II, was placed on the throne. Tara Bai’s energy and ability made her the defacto ruler of the state. She saved the Maratha state during a period of grave crisis. The succession to the throne was in dispute. Personal jealousies divided the Maratha leaders. Aurangzeb, after the fall of Jinji, concentrated all his resources on the siege of successive Maratha forts. In this situation, Tara Bai played a role which elicited high praise from the hostile Muslim historian Khafi Khan.

 

Shahu (1708 – 1749)

 

Bahadur Shah on the death of Aurangzeb liberated Shahu, who had been in Mughal captivity since November 3, 1689. Shahu was recognized as the king of the Marathas and his right to the Maratha Swaraj and to Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccani Subahs of the Mughal was also recognized. The Mughal suzerainty was retained through the arrangement that he would rule as vassal of the empire.

 

While Shahu was back in Maharashtra, a civil war broke out between the forces of Tara Bai and Shahu, which lasted upto 1714. When Shahu reached Satara, Tara Bai ordered her men to destroy him. The support of the Maratha Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and Diwan Balaji Vishvanath helped Shahu triumph over odds. A battle took place in Khed on October 12, 1707 between the forces of Shahu and Tara Bai and Shahu occupied Satara.

 

Now the Maratha kingdom was split up into two antagonistic Subs – states with Shahu at the head of one at Satara and Shivaji II, or really Tara Bai as the head of the other at Kolhapur. When Shivaji II died, another son of Raja Ram from Rajasbai Sambhaji II ascended the throne at Kolhapur. The fight between these two rivals’ forces was finally settled by the Treaty of Warna in 1731, which provided that Sambhaji II should rule over the Southern division of the Maratha Kingdom with Kolhapur as its capital and the northern part with the capital at Satara should be considered as the preserve of Shahu.

 

Administration under Shivaji

 

The Maratha administration was based on the pattern adopted by Malik Amber in Ahmad Nagar and Mahmud Gawan in Bahmani Kingdom. Empire was divided into two parts Swaraj, meaning own kingdom and other parts of Mughal empire which paid him Chauth. Shivaji kingdom was parceled out into four provinces (Mahal or Suba) under the charge of a Subhadar or Mamalutdar or Mukhyadeshadhikari. The Mahals were divided into Parganas and Parganas into ‘tarfs’ and tarfs were divided into Mauza.

 

His council of ministers was called Ashtapradhan, each minister being directly responsible to the ruler.

 

Asta – Pradhan of Shivaji

 

·         Peshwa or Mukya Pradhan – Prime Minister.

·         Amatya or Maujadar – Finance Minister.

·         Mantra or Waqianavis – recorded proceedings of court.

·         Sachiva or Suranavis – incharge of royal secretariat and king’s correspondence

·         Sumant of Dabir – foreign Minister

·         Senapati or SAR – I – naubat – commander in chief.

·         Pandit Rao or Danda dhyaksha – religious advisor of king.

·         Nyayadish – highest court of appeal; next after the king.

·         Raja Ram created a new post of Pratinidhi.

·         All ministers except Pandit Rao and Nyayadish participated in war.

 

Each minister was assisted by eight clerks. Diwan (Secretary), Majumdar (accountant), Fadnis (office in charge), Chitnis (treasurer), Potnis (Cashier), Karkhanis (Commissary). Shivaji maintained a regular standing army. The cavalry was divided into two classes: Bargis and Silahdars. Bargis were supplied with horses and arms by the state. Silahdars had to keep their own equipment.

 

Shivaji discouraged revenue farming system. He did away with the hereditary officers such as the Patil, the Kulkarni, the Deshmukh and the Despande. Kathi was the unit of the measurement of land. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi both were land tax collected from Mughal territory. Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas so that land would not be sullied to the Maratha raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of then percent which Shivaji demanded on the basis of being the hereditary Sardeshmukh. The territories of the enemies on which Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were levied were called ‘Mughlai’.

 

MARATHA CONFEDERACY

 

Balaji Vishvanath (1713 – 1720)

 

Balaji Vishvanath rose to power step by step. He rendered loyal and useful service to Shahu and suppressed his enemies and rivals. He excelled in diplomacy and won over many Maratha chiefs to the side of Shahu. In recognition of his services, Shahu made him his Peshwa. Gradually, Balaji Vishvanath consolidated Shahu’s hold and also his own, over Maratha chiefs. The Peshwa concentrated all power in his office. As a matter of fact, Balaji Vishvanath and his son Baji Rao made the Peshwa the functional head of the Maratha Empire.

 

One of the first things Balaji was called upon to do was to secure the restoration of Shahu’s mother to him from the custody of the Mughal who had detained her at Delhi as hostage for the good behaviour of her son Shahu. Balaji opened direct negotiations with the Saiyed Brothers and in February, 1719 al his demands were accepted.

 

In 1719, Balaji Vishvanath accompanied Saiyed Hussain Ali to Delhi at the head of Maratha force and helped the Saiyed Brothers in over throwing Farrukh Siyar.

 

Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720 – 40)

 

Balaji Vishvanath was succeeded as Peshwa by his son Baji Rao I. He was a bold and brilliant commander and an ambitions and clever statesman. Under his leadership, the Marathas waged numerous campaigns against the Mughal Empire to compel the Mughal officials first to give them the right to collect Chauth of the vast areas and then to cede those areas to Maratha Kingdom.

 

He defeated the Nizam in the battle near Bhopal in 1738. By the time of his death in 1740, the Marathas had established their control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand. The Maratha families of Scindhia, Holkar, Gaekwad and Bhosle came into prominence. Baji Rao changed the character of the Maratha state. From the kingdom of Maharashtra, it was transformed into an Empire expanding in Northern India. Announcing his policy towards the Mughal Empire he said, “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering trees and branch will fall of them”. In pursuance of this policy, he led numerous expeditions, one after another, into the heart of the Mughal Empire, which made the Marathas the Supreme power in India.

 

By the convention of Durai Sarai (January, 1738), he compelled the Nizam (Asaf Jah Nizam – ul – mulk) to agree to surrender to the Peshwa the whole of Malwa, together with the complete sovereignty of the territory between the Narmada and the Chambal river and to pay Rs. 50 lakhs as war indemnity. The victory of Bhopal marks the Zenith of the Peshwas triumphant career. During the two decades of Baji Rao, he conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand, Bassein and Gujarat and reached upto Delhi in 1737.

 

The fall of Bassein marked the end of Portuguese rule in the North Konkan. He also severaly crippled the power of Siddies of Janjira. He made Pune the centre of his activities and it soon came to be known as the seat of Peshwa. There is no doubt that he was greatest Maratha leader after Shivaji. His policy of northward expansion, however, landed the Marathas into the ruinous third Battle of Panipat. During his Peshwaship, Baji Rao saw the beginnings of the regional dynasties which played an important role in the days of his successors.

 

All the twenty years of his Peshwaship, Baji Rao was on the move, marching, fighting and wining battles. He is remembered in Maharashtra as the fighting Peshwa. Baji Rao was a great soldier, great as a diplomat, great statesman and an empire builder. Baji Rao founded the Maratha Empire through his conquest, but he did not consolidate it through administrative organization. Baji Rao’s raid of Delhi in 1737 was a near miracle in rapid marches.

 

Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao or Nana Saheb (1740 – 1761)

 

Baji Rao was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji Rao in 1740 and remained Peshwa till 1761. When Shahu died in 1749, the management of the affairs of the state fell into the hands of the Peshwa, who became the official head of the administration, eclipsing the authority of Chhatrapati. The constitutional revolution of 1750 (Sangola Agreement) completed the process. Hence forth, the Maratha king became a titular head and the Mayor of the palace and the Peshwa emerged as the real and effective head of the Maratha confederacy. He sifted the government to Poona. He extended the Maratha Empire in different directions. Balaji set in right earnest to complete the task left half fulfilled by his father. He relentlessly worked for the expansion of the Maratha Power both in the north and the South. Success attended Balaji’s efforts and the Maratha state reached its territorial zenith, extending from Kattack to Attock.

 

The Mughal wazir, Safdar Jang persuaded the Emperor to enter into an agreement with the Marathas in May, 1752 for undertaking the defence of the empire against its internal and external foes. In return the Marathas were to get the Chauth of the north western provines usurped and occupied by the Afghans. However, that Chauth could only be secured by actual conquest. The Marathas were also given the Subas of Agra and Ajmer. As a result of this agreement, the Maratha military force was posted at Delhi and they repeatedly interfered in the politics of North India and established their supremacy at Delhi.

 

A struggle foe supremacy over northern India started. Ahmad Shah Abdali formed an alliance with Najibud – Daula of Rohilkhand and Shujaud – Daula of Awadh. Both of them had suffered at the hands of the Marathas. The Peshwa dispatched a powerful army to the north under nominal command of his minor son Vishwas Rao, but the actual command was in the hands of his cousin Sadashiv Rao Bhau.

 

The armies faced each other on the battlefield of Panipat in November, 1760. Both sides were handicapped for supplies and negotiated for peace. Since no meeting ground was found, the battle started on 14^th January, 1761. The Marathas lost the day. The Afghan victory was complete and the Maratha casualties were very heavy. Vishwas Rao, Sadashiv Rao Bhau and many other Maratha commanders died in the battle field. About 28,000 soldiers were killed. When the Peshwa heard the news of the defeat of the Marathas, he died in June 1761.

 

Peshwa Madav Rao I (1761 – 1772)

 

Balaji Baji Rao was succeeded by his younger son Madhav Rao. At the time of succession to the throne he was only 17 years old, his uncle Raghunath Rao, the eldest surviving member of the Peshwa family, became the regent of his nephew, and the defacto ruler of the state. During this period serious differences broke out between the Peshwa and his uncle. In 1765, Raghunath Rao demanded the partition of the Maratha state between himself and the Peshwa. During this period, the Marathas tried to restore their lost position in north India. In January 1771, Mahadaji Scindhia occupied Delhi and succeeded in exacting money from the leading Rajput princes; but the premature death of Madhav Rao in November, 1772 placed the Maratha dominion in a deep crisis. Madhav Rao was the last great Peshwa; had he been survived longer, the Maratha Empire could have been saved from disaster.

 

After the death of Madhav Rao the Peshwaship had lost its all power and prestige, some due to the political development in Indian sub – continent after the Battle of Buxer and Plassey and English being the paramount power in Indian politics. The last Peshwa surrendered to the English and the Peshwaship was abolished.

 

 

 

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

 

 

Though Bhakti was traced back to Upanishads, Gita and Purans, as a movement it began in South India in 7^th Century by ‘Alwars’ (Vaishnavites) and ‘Nayanars’ (Shaivites). Ramanand carried the Bhakti movement to North India and is rightly regarded as a bridge between the Bhakti movement of South and North India. The Bhakti movement in North India was propagated by two schools of thought namely the ‘Saguna School’ and the ‘Nirguna School’.

 

The Bhakti movement had two main objectives. One was to reform the Hindu religion so as to enable it to with stand the onslaught of Islamic propaganda and proselytism. Its second objective was to bring about a compromise between Hinduism and Islam and to foster friendly relations between Hinduism and Islam and to foster friendly relations between Hindu and Muslim communities. It succeeded in realizing to a great extent, the first object of bringing about the simplification of worship and liberalizing the traditional caste rules.

 

Ramananda

 

The founder of the Bhakti movement in North India was Ramananda. He was the first reformer to preach in Hindi, the language of the masses. He discarded caste rules and included among his disciples men of all castes. He preached the worship of Rama along with his consort Sita.

 

He was greatly influenced by teaching of Ramanuja. He opened the door of Bhakti to all without any distinction. Among his disciples were Raidasa, the cobbler, Kabir, the weaver, Dhanna, the farmer, Sena the barber and Pipa the Rajput etc. the teaching of Ramananda gave rise to two schools of thought, the orthodox and the liberal. The orthodox school is represented by Nabhadas, the author of ‘Bhaktimala’ and Tulsidas, the author of ‘Ramcharitmanas’. The liberal school is represented by Kabir, Nanak and others.

 

Kabir (1440 – 1518)

 

The most radical disciple of Ramananda was Kabir. He was born of a Hindu widow who threw him off to escape defame and consequently he was brought up by Noru, a Muslim weaver. Kabir’s teachings are contained in his ‘dohas’ which are still sung with great pleasure even up to this day. His sayings were collected in Bijak. He represented Nirguna Bhakti tradition. His followers organized themselves as Kabir Panthis. Kabir was not merely a Bhakti poet but social reformer. He emphasized on simplicity of religion and unorthodox Bhakti tradition. He spoke in the language of common man. Kabir condemned superstition, rituals, fasting, worshipping various incarnations, pilgrimage, etc. He opposed orthodox religious practices be it Brahmanism or Islam. Instead, he advocated the Bhakti marg, dedication to a formless supreme being.

 

Namdeva (1426 – 1506)

 

He was the first in Maharashtra to preach against caste, image – worship and rituals and ceremonies. He laid emphasis on the true devotion and worship of God. The only way of Salvation is the worship of true name. Namdeva preached the oneness of Godhood. According to him the God of the Hindus and the Muslims as well as the Brahmans and the Chandalas is one and the same and so all are equal. Namdeva had many Muslim disciples, too.

 

Guru Nanak (1469 – 1538)

 

Another reformer of the Bhakti movement was Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikh Faith in India. He was born in 1469 in Talwandi, now Nankana Sahib in Pakistan, to a Khatri (trader) family. He settled in Kartarpur. He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of rabab, a stringed instrument played by his faithful attendant, Mardana. It is said that Nanak undertook wide tours all over India. He also went to Srilanka in the South and Mecca and Medina in North.

 

Nanak also laid emphasis on the one God. By repeating his name with love and devotion one could get salvation without distinction of caste, creed or sect. Purity of character and conduct was the first step in approaching God and secondly the guidance of Guru. Like Kabir, Nanak also preached against worshipping idols, undertaking pilgrimage and other ritualistic conducts. In course of time his teaching gave rise to Sikhism. Nanak began the practices of community kitchen – ‘Guru Ka langar’. He named formless God as ‘Akal Purush’. His teachings are compiled in ‘Adi Granth’. He died in Kartarpur in 1538.

 

Vallabhacharya (1479 – 1531)

 

He lived for some in the court of king Krishna Deva of the Vijaynagar Empire. He laid emphasis on the worship of Krishna as an incarnation of the Almighty God. He preached that there was no difference between the ‘Atma’ and the ‘Parmatma’ or God. It is by means of Bhakti that one can get salvation and merge in him.

 

Raidasa

 

A disciple of Ramananda started Raidasapanth. Rani Jhali of Chittor became his disciple. Some of his songs are included in Guru Granth Saheb.

 

Chaitanya (1486 – 1533)

 

He was born at Navdeep in Naida district of West Bengal. He is regarded as the founder of modern Vaishnava sect in Bengal called Gaudia Vaishnava Dharma. His guru was Ishwarpuri. He preached during the reign of Sultan Allaudin Shah of Bengal and Gajapati rulers of Orissa. Pratap Gajapati was his disciple. He died in Puri. His biography ‘Chaitanya Charitmala’ was written by Krishna Kaviraj.

 

Philosophy of Chaitanya is called Achityabhedaveda. The world is not an illusion, it is real. It is the manifestation of god i.e. Krishna and his power, Radha. This cult became very popular is Bengal. His followers regard him as incarnation of Krishna. He popularized the concept of Sankirtan, devotional singing accompanied by ecstatic dancing. He disregarded all distinction of caste, creed and sex and gave popular base to Krishna Bhakti. Haridas, a Muslim, was one of his favourite disciples.

Surdas (1483 – 1563)

 

He was a great disciple of Vallabhacharya. He was a devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha; he believed that salvation can be achieved only through the devotion of Krishna, who is a saguna god. He wrote Sur Suravali, Sahitya Ratna and Sursagar.

 

Tulsidas (1532 – 1623)

 

Belonged to Saguna School, he looked upon Rama as an incarnation of God and believed that man could reach him only through Bhakti. He is considered even now as a great Vaishnava Bhakti and acharya who lives in the hearts of millions of men and women, through his immortal Ramcharitmanas, Vinaypatrika and Kavitawali.

 

Mirabai (1498 – 1546)

 

She was a Rajput princess of Merta. She was married to Bhojraja, the eldest son of Rana Sanga in Sisidiya dynasty, became widow soon after her marriage. She was famous for her devotion to Lord Krishna. Mira is said to have composed numerous poems, all of them being devotional songs. They are written in Brajbhasa and Rajasthani.

 

Shankardev (1449 – 1568)

 

He was a religious reformer of Assam. He was a monotheist and worshipped Krishna. He is called Chaitanya of Assam. He founded Mahapurashya dharma and his concept of Bhakti is known as Ek Sharan Sampradaya. He popularized Satra, a sitting during which people of all classes assembled for religious as well as social purpose.

 

Dadu Dayal (1544 – 1603)

 

He belonged to the Nirgun Bhakti tradition. Dadu founded Bramha Sampradaya and Parabramha Sampradaya. He preached services to humanity. His famous disciples were Sunderdas (Varanasi), Rajjab (a Muslim from Rajasthan), Bakhan (a low caste Muslim), and Waidid (a Pathan). Rajjab said “this world is Veda and the creation is Quran”.

 

Eknath (1533 – 99)

 

He was born in Patan in Aurangabad. He published the first reliable edition of Janesvari (the Marathi Gita), wrote Bhavartha Ramayan (commentary) and a commentary on the 11^th book of the Bhagvata Purana which is very popular. He was a family man and invented a new form of religious life that needed no institution, stay in monasteries or resignation from life in the world. He condemned caste system and accepted disciples from the lower caste.

 

Tukaram (1598 – 1650)

 

He was a worshiper of Vithoba of Pandharpur and contemporary of Shivaji. He was the greatest Marathi Bhakti poet and his views are similar to that of Kabir. He was against social in equality and religious formalism. He played a significant role in promoting nationalism in Maharashtra.

 

Ramdas (1608 – 81)

 

He was the spiritual guru of Shivaji. He wrote Dasabodha, a didactic work, which gave advice on all aspects of life. He was settled in Chafal in Satara district of Maharashtra. He was a Dharkari Saint.

 

EXPONENTS OF BHAKTI

 

Different Bhakti saints & their philosophy & sects.

 

Philosophy                                         Sects.                                            Propounder

1.       Advaitvad                                     Smriti                                            Shankaracharya

2.       Vishisthadvaita                             Sri                                                 Ramanuj

3.       Dvaitadvaita                                 Sankadik                                       Nimbkacharya

4.       Dvaitvada                                     Brahma                                         Madhvacharya

5.       Suddhadvaita                                Rudra or Vaisheshika                   Ballabhacharya

6.       Bhedabhedvada                                                                                  Bhaskaracharya

 

 

Some more sects and it founder:

 

1.       Virshaiva Sect. – By Basava, Chennabasav.

2.       Radha Ballabh Sect. – by Hith Harivansh

3.       Gosai Panth or Achintyabhedaveda – by Chaitnya Mahaprabhu in Bengal

4.       Dadu Panth or Nipakh Sect. – Dadu Dayal

5.       Raydasi Sect. – Raidas (Chamar)

6.       Varkari – Tukaram

7.       Dharkari – Ramdas

 

Sufism

 

Sufism is a common term given to Islamic mysticism. They accepted the prophethod of Mohammad and the authority of the Quran, but in course of time they observed a variety of ideas and practices from different sources such as Christainity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, etc. sufi mysticism sprang from the doctrine of ‘Wahadat – ul – wajud’ or ‘the unity of being’. This doctrine means that God is unity behind all plurality and the reality behind all phenomental appearances.

 

The Sufis had a two fold objective namely the own spiritual development and the service to humanity. Union of the human soil with God through loving devotion was the essence of the Sufi faith. They spoke the language of the masses and gave impetus to linguistic assimilation and to cultural synthesis. The Sufi saints showed great interest in learning ‘Yoga’ and the chisti and Suharvardi order adopted Sama and Ragas (audition and dancing) as a mode of invocation to God. The practice of spiritual preceptorship, known as ‘piri muridi’ was also prevalent in Sufism.

 

In the 16^th century there were as many as fourteen Sufi orders in India mentioned by Abul Fazl. Of the various orders largely found outside India, only two, the chistis and the Suharvardis were the first to succeed in establishing themselves firmly on Indian soil. The Sufi orders or Silsilas were mainly of two types ‘Be – Shara’ (not bound by Islamic laws) and ‘Ba – Shara’ (those who followed the Islamic laws).

 

Chisti Order

 

Founded in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti was very popular and it achieved extraordinary success due to its liberal and catholic outlook. Khwaja Muinuddin settled in Ajmer, his disciple was Hamiduddin Nagari, Zia Nakshbandi, who translated ‘Tuti Namah’ and ‘Rati Rahasya’.

 

In Delhi, Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki (disciple of Muinuddin) lived, after whom the Qutub Minar is named. His disciple Farid – Ganj – I – Shakar built Jamat Khana masjid in Punjab. Saikh Salim Chisti of Fatehpur greatly venerated him.

 

Firdausi Order

 

First established by Badruddin Samarqandi in Delhi, who later moved to Bihar. The most prominent Sufi of this order was Sharfuddin Ahmad yahya Manari of Patna. He believed in Pantheistic monoism.

 

Suharvardi Order

 

The order was founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharvardi. Its foundation on Indian soil was laid by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria of Multan. Iltutmish gave him the title of ‘Shaikh – ul – Islam’. Saints of this order had big jagirs and close contact with the state.

 

Quadiri Order

 

Started by Niamatullah Qadri. Dara Sikoh was the follower of this order and visited Mian Mir at Lahore. When Mian Mir died Dara became a disciple of his successor named Mullah Shah Badakshi.

 

Naqshbandi Order

 

This Silsila was introduced in India by Khwaja Baki Billah during the latter years of Akbar’s reign. Seikh Ahmad Sirhindi belonged to this order. He opposed the pantheistic philosophy. He started ‘Taghallub Movement’. This order was last to come to India.

 

Shattari Order

 

It was founded in India by Sheikh Abdullah Sattari, however under Seikh Muhammad Ganth of Gwalior that the order developed in its full stature. Among his disciple were the famous musician Tansen.

 

Nizamia Order

 

Founded by Nizammuddin Aulia, who had trouble with Mubarak Khaji and Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. He was succeeded by Nasiruddin Chirag who had trouble with Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

 

 

Major Islamic Movement

 

Mahadawi Movement

 

It was initiated by Syed Muhammad Mahdi to Jaunpur who claimed to be the prophet Mahdi.

 

Rayshaniyah Movement

 

Started by Miyan Bayazid Ansari a native of Jallandhar.

 

Rishi Movement

 

Started by Sheikh Nuruddin in Kashmir.

 

Sikh Gurus and Sikhism

 

Originally founded as a religious sect by Guru Nanak, who emphasized fundamental truth underlying all religious and the Chief features of whose system were its non sectarian character and its harmony with sacred life. Guru Nanak is considered to be the first Guru, who died in 1539.

 

Guru Angad (Lehna) (1539 – 52)

 

Invented Gurumukhi script, Humayun met him.

 

Guru Amar Das (1552 – 74)

 

Struggled against Sati system and pardah system established 22 Gaddiyan to propagate religion. Akbar met him. He started Lavan system to differentiate between marriage systems of Sikhs with Hindus.

 

Guru Ram Das (1574 – 81)

 

Akbar granted a plot of land to him, on which the Golden temple was constructed later. He founded the city of Amritsar.

 

Guru Arjun Dev (1581 – 1606)

 

Founded Swarna Temple, composed Adigranth (Granth Sabib) and appointed Mansab for religious works. Emperor Jahangir tortured him to death as he had blessed Khusro, the rebellious son of Jahangir.

 

Guru Hargovind (1606 – 45)

 

Transformed Sikhs into a militant community established Akal Takht and fortified Amritsar and shifted his headquarters to Kirtharpur in Kashmir hills.

 

Har Rai (1645 – 61)

 

Helped Dara after battle of Samugarh.

 

Har Kishan (1661 – 64)

 

He was the second son of Guru Har Rai, who succeeds his father at the five under unfortunate circumstance since his brother was taken away as a hostage by the Mughals.

 

Teg Bahadur (1664 – 75)

 

Executed by Aurangzeb on the pretext that he had instigated the Brahmans of Kashmir to resist him. Shishmahal Gurudwara in front of Lal Kila at Delhi where he was beheaded.

 

Govind Singh (1675 – 1708)

 

He was the last Guru, was born at Patna in Bihar. After him Guruship ended. He founded Khalsa army and introduced a new rite ‘Pahul’, killed by an Afghan fanatic at Nander on the bank of Godavari. After Govind Singh, Sikhs found leader in Banda Bahadur, who established the stronghold of Lohgarh or Blood Iron Fort at Mukhlispur and tried to assume royal title and struck coins in his name. He was killed by Farrukhsiyar. However, the Sikhs began to organize themselves gradually and Kapur Singh started an organization ‘Dalkhalsa’, the theocracy of the Sikhs.